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Journal Article•DOI•

Overtraining or burnout : a training and psycho-behavioural case study

Luana C. Main1, Grant Landers2•
Deakin University1, University of Western Australia2
01 Mar 2012-International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching (Multi-Science Publishing Co. Ltd)-Vol. 7, Iss: 1, pp 23-31
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors present case study data that challenge the popular notion that athlete burnout represents the ultimate outcome of overtraining and advocate a need for future research to clarify differences between these two training-stress syndromes, specifically in relation to their aetiology.
Abstract: The aim of this article is to present case study data that challenges the popular conception that athlete burnout represents the ultimate outcome of overtraining A young male triathlete (22 yrs) completed a comprehensive training diary, along with the Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ) and the Multi-component Training Distress Scale (MTDS) weekly from the commencement of pre-season training, until the end of the competitive season 45 weeks later Results were analysed retrospectively upon completion of the season and followed up with semi-structured interviews with the coach and athlete These longitudinal observations are the first to document an athlete who appears to have simultaneously become overtrained and developed athlete burnout as measured by the ABQ Thus we are advocating a need for future research to clarify differences between these two training-stress syndromes, specifically in relation to their aetiology, to avoid misdiagnosis and to ensure appropriate treatment for athletes experiencing these conditions is provided

Summary (3 min read)

Jump to: [INTRODUCTION] – [Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ)] – [The Multi-Component Training Distress Scale (MTDS)] – [PROCEDURES] – [DATA ANALYSIS] – [RESULTS] – [DISCUSSION] and [CONCLUSION]

INTRODUCTION

  • Stress and other emotional responses are part of a complex interplay of physiological, behavioural and psychological reactions to environmental and circumstantial stimuli.
  • Evidence demonstrates that psychological processes and emotional states influence the aetiology and progression of disease and resistance or vulnerability to illness [1].
  • The original definition of athlete burnout will be adopted for the current discussion, where signs and symptoms of athlete burnout develop as a consequence of a perceived imbalance between the psychosocial stressors an athlete is exposed to and the coping strategies they have available [6], which is consistent with current research trends.
  • In comparison, NF-OR will be defined as a chronic accumulation of training and non-training stressors, resulting in a decrement of performance capacity with mal-adaptation of several physiological regulation mechanisms, consistent with the European Congress of Sport Sciences’ definition [15].
  • The authors hypothesis is that these two states are independent of one another and may coexist.

Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ)

  • Developed to specifically assess athlete burnout, the Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ) [18] is composed of three 5-item subscales designed to measure: a) reduced sense of accomplishment, b) sport devaluation, and c) emotional/ physical exhaustion.
  • Participants respond to items on a 5-point scale anchored by almost never (1), sometimes (3), and most of the time (5).
  • Acceptable internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and construct validity have been previously reported [18].

The Multi-Component Training Distress Scale (MTDS)

  • Multi-Component Training Distress Scale (MTDS) is a multi-component assessment instrument for monitoring athlete psycho-behavioural responses to training stimuli [19].
  • Specifically developed to monitor an athlete’s response to training stimuli during periods of overload training, this composite instrument consists of six discrete factors reflecting common psycho-behavioural signs and symptoms of NF-OR.
  • The six MTDS factors measured were: Depression (F1), Vigour (F2), Physical Signs and Symptoms (F3), Sleep disturbances (F4), Perceived stress (F5) and Fatigue (F6).
  • Evidence of reliability and criterion-related validity has been provided [19].

PROCEDURES

  • A comprehensive training diary has been cited as a crucial diagnostic aid in managing the ‘tired’ athlete in conjunction with other psychosocial factors [20].
  • The athlete was also asked to indicate on a checklist any signs or symptoms of upper-respiratory tract infections (URTI’s) and any injuries, or minor aches and pains experienced throughout the week.
  • In addition to the training log, the athlete completed the ABQ and the MTDS.
  • Upon completion of the study, the researcher met individually with the athlete and the coach for a semi-structured discussion on the events of the past season.
  • To check for content validity and control for researcher bias, traditional checking procedures were employed [21, 22].

DATA ANALYSIS

  • Training log data are presented for the five distinct nine-week training phases for each of the variables.
  • Phase 4: mid-competition season; and Phase 5: end of competition season.
  • Training was also categorised by the time of day the sessions were completed each week (i.e., early training commenced before 8:00am; morning training commenced between 8:00am and 12:00pm; afternoon training commenced between 1:00pm and 4:00pm; evening training commenced from 5:00pm onwards).
  • Cohen’s d effect sizes were calculated to determine if changes noted between phases were meaningful for the data [23].

RESULTS

  • Across the course of the study, the athlete completed 480 training sessions, cycled over 12,000 km, and competed in 15 events.
  • As time progressed he began to feel increasingly tired and flat and these changes were noted in his MTDS scores (Figure 1).
  • At the commencement of phase 4 he was diagnosed with an iron deficiency, and reduced his training for a week.
  • The following week he reportedly could not recover from a session, but he still competed in the State Olympic Distance Championships (1.5 km swim, a 40 km bike leg and a 10 km run).
  • It is important to note that these values were not considered to be meaningful in terms of still experiencing burnout and it may be viewed that following the four weeks of reduced training he had recovered from a period in which he simultaneously experienced NF-OR and athlete burnout.

DISCUSSION

  • This case study is the first to present data where an athlete appears to have both overtrained (as deduced by comments in his training diary, responses on the MTDS, and consultation with a Sport Physician at that time) and simultaneously become burned out (as measured by the ABQ).
  • The “clock-work regularity” with which the athlete experienced flu like symptoms during the first half of the season is reflective of an athlete who was engaging in overload training with inadequate recovery.
  • With regard to the development of athlete burnout, it is apparent that even from the start of the competitive phase, the athlete was devaluing his performances, and reinforcing a sense of low accomplishment as the season progressed.
  • As such, further research is required to better understand these two states and determine whether they are independent of one another or whether they are intrinsically interrelated.
  • A reduction in performance may be the result of a loss of motivation towards sport involvement, and the athlete may need some time to re-assess their goals or season objectives.

CONCLUSION

  • The current case study serves to highlight why athlete burnout and OT need to be clearly defined, to avoid misdiagnosis and to ensure that appropriate treatment is obtained for athletes suffering from burnout or NF-OR/OTS.
  • It appears that until there is a clear working or conceptual definition for athlete burnout, the two phenomena will continue to be confused [26].
  • Until such time, it is important that athletes, coaches and support staff are aware of the possible signs and symptoms of training-stress syndromes and the interventions available to manage them.

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Thisisthepublishedversion:
Main,LuanaC.andLanders,GrantJ.2012,Overtrainingorburnout:atrainingandpsycho‐
behaviouralcasestudy,Internationaljournalofsportsscienceandcoaching,vol.7,no.1,pp.23‐31.
AvailablefromDeakinResearchOnline:
http://hdl.handle.net/10536/DRO/DU:30047268
Reproducedwiththekindpermissionofthecopyrightowner.
Copyright:2012,Multi‐SciencePublishing
Overtraining or Burnout: A Training and
Psycho-Behavioural Case Study
Luana C. Main
1
and Grant J. Landers
2
1
School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Deakin University
221 Burwood Highway, Burwood, Victoria, 3125, Australia
E-mail: luana.main@deakin.edu.au
2
School of Sport Science, Exercise & Health
The University of Western Australia
35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, Western Australia, 6009, Australia
E-mail: grant.landers@uwa.edu.au
ABSTRACT
The aim of this article is to present case study data that challenges the
popular conception that athlete burnout represents the ultimate outcome
of overtraining. A young male triathlete (22 yrs) completed a
comprehensive training diary, along with the Athlete Burnout Questionnaire
(ABQ) and the Multi-component Training Distress Scale (MTDS) weekly
from the commencement of pre-season training, until the end of the
competitive season 45 weeks later. Results were analysed retrospectively
upon completion of the season and followed up with semi-structured
interviews with the coach and athlete. These longitudinal observations are
the first to document an athlete who appears to have simultaneously
become overtrained and developed athlete burnout as measured by the
ABQ. Thus we are advocating a need for future research to clarify
differences between these two training-stress syndromes, specifically in
relation to their aetiology, to avoid misdiagnosis and to ensure appropriate
treatment for athletes experiencing these conditions is provided.
Key words: Athlete Burnout, Overtraining, Stress, Triathlon
INTRODUCTION
Stress and other emotional responses are part of a complex interplay of physiological,
behavioural and psychological reactions to environmental and circumstantial stimuli. When
an athlete engages in regular training, they actively challenge the natural homeostatic
balance to elicit adaptations and performance gains. However, stressors outside of sport may
also compromise an athlete’s ability to maintain a homeostatic balance. Evidence
demonstrates that psychological processes and emotional states influence the aetiology and
progression of disease and resistance or vulnerability to illness [1]. In keeping, there is now
a shifting trend towards a psychobiological approach to investigating the aetiology of
overtraining (OT) [2, 3]. However, it is difficult to distinguish between OT and athlete
International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching Volume 7 · Number 1 · 2012 23
Reviewer: Kathy Myburgh (University of Stellenbosch, South Africa)
burnout, as literature cites both psychological and physiological stressors as antecedents of
each state.
Traditionally grounded in a psychosocial framework, sport scientists have suggested that
the negative, unmotivated and exhausted states sometimes described by athletes are a sport-
related manifestation of the burnout syndrome [4]. While burnout is a commonly used term
within the sporting community, there is much debate as to the definition and measurement of
athlete burnout [5]. To date, three main operational definitions of athlete burnout have been
presented. Firstly, a cognitive-affective model of athlete burnout, which emphasizes the
effect of imbalances between the demands on an athlete, the resources they have to cope with
the demands, and the cognitive appraisal of the perceived imbalance [6]. Secondly, athlete
burnout as the endpoint of excessive physical training [7]. Thirdly, a physical withdrawal
from sport following an intense investment of effort and high achievement in sport [8].
Current research trends have proposed a motivational approach to the study of burnout in
elite athletes [9-11], while still using the original conceptualisation of burnout in professional
health-care settings [12]. Therefore, athlete burnout represents a stress reaction syndrome
comprised of three dimensions: (1) a reduced sense of accomplishment; (2) sport
devaluation; and (3) feelings emotional/ physical exhaustion [13]. Thus grounded in a
psychosocial framework, burnout refers to the process surrounding, and in response to, stress
overload, where excessive physical stressors are possible, but not requisite antecedents.
Perhaps because of the complexity of the overtraining syndrome (OTS) and a poor
understanding of its aetiology, considerable variation exists in the terms used to describe this
phenomenon or group of related phenomena. Overreaching (OR), OT, OTS, staleness,
overload, underperformance, under-recovery, short- and long-term OT, and more recently,
the ‘unexplained under-performance syndrome’ [14] have all been used by different
researchers. OS is defined as a chronic accumulation of training and non-training stressors,
resulting in a decrement of performance capacity with prolonged maladaptation of several
biological, neurochemical, hormonal and metabolic regulatory mechanisms [15]. However,
it is important to acknowledge that there is a continuum from deliberate overload training or
functional OR (F-OR) to non-functional OR (NF-OR; often referred to as OT) and finally
OTS. At this stage, differentiation between NF-OR and OTS would be very difficult and
would depend on the results of clinical diagnosis [15]. Indeed, F-OR can be a deliberate
process resulting from periods of specific overload training stressors, such as during a
training camp, for the purpose of eliciting performance gains [16]. However, it has been
suggested that the lasting negative consequences occur when there is an imbalance between
the psychobiological stressors imposed upon an athlete, and the athlete’s ability to adapt to
or cope with these stressors is hindered or compromised by inadequate recovery [17].
A stress response is more likely to manifest when an athlete perceives that it is important
to succeed, but feels unable to meet the demands of the situation. As such, the psychological
stress response is influenced by three main factors: 1) personality factors; 2) a history of
stressors; and 3) coping resources available [6].The original definition of athlete burnout will
be adopted for the current discussion, where signs and symptoms of athlete burnout develop
as a consequence of a perceived imbalance between the psychosocial stressors an athlete is
exposed to and the coping strategies they have available [6], which is consistent with current
research trends. As such, withdrawal from sport may be considered one of the many possible
consequences, but not a necessary outcome. In comparison, NF-OR will be defined as a
chronic accumulation of training and non-training stressors, resulting in a decrement of
performance capacity with mal-adaptation of several physiological regulation mechanisms,
consistent with the European Congress of Sport Sciences’ definition [15]. As such, the
24 Overtraining or Burnout: A Training and Psycho-Behavioural Case Study
primary aim of the current case study is to determine whether NF-OR and burnout may co-
exist. Our hypothesis is that these two states are independent of one another and may co-
exist.
METHOD
PARTICIPANT
The participant was an up-and-coming talented young triathlete (male, 22 yrs), who was
originally from a competitive swimming background. At the time of data collection, the
participant had been competing in triathlons for two years, and was preparing to compete in
the open division for the first time. He was a full-time undergraduate university student who
also worked part time. Following institutional ethical approval and discussions with the
coach, informed written consent was obtained from the athlete prior to commencing data
collection.
INSTRUMENTS
Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ)
Developed to specifically assess athlete burnout, the Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ)
[18] is composed of three 5-item subscales designed to measure: a) reduced sense of
accomplishment, b) sport devaluation, and c) emotional/ physical exhaustion. Participants
respond to items on a 5-point scale anchored by almost never (1), sometimes (3), and most
of the time (5). Acceptable internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and construct validity
have been previously reported [18].
The Multi-Component Training Distress Scale (MTDS)
Multi-Component Training Distress Scale (MTDS) is a multi-component assessment
instrument for monitoring athlete psycho-behavioural responses to training stimuli [19].
Specifically developed to monitor an athlete’s response to training stimuli during periods of
overload training, this composite instrument consists of six discrete factors reflecting
common psycho-behavioural signs and symptoms of NF-OR. The six MTDS factors
measured were: Depression (F1), Vigour (F2), Physical Signs and Symptoms (F3), Sleep
disturbances (F4), Perceived stress (F5) and Fatigue (F6). Evidence of reliability and
criterion-related validity has been provided [19].
PROCEDURES
A comprehensive training diary has been cited as a crucial diagnostic aid in managing the
‘tired’ athlete in conjunction with other psychosocial factors [20]. The athlete completed a
weekly training log recording the type of training, volume and intensity and time of day each
session was undertaken and whether the session was performed under the supervision of a
coach (Coached), in a training group (Group) or on his own (Individual). The athlete was also
asked to indicate on a checklist any signs or symptoms of upper-respiratory tract infections
(URTI’s) and any injuries, or minor aches and pains experienced throughout the week. A
record of races, time trials, and how happy the athlete was with these performances was also
noted. In addition to the training log, the athlete completed the ABQ and the MTDS. Upon
completion of the study, the researcher met individually with the athlete and the coach for a
semi-structured discussion on the events of the past season. To check for content validity and
control for researcher bias, traditional checking procedures were employed [21, 22].
International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching Volume 7 · Number 1 · 2012 25
DATA ANALYSIS
Training log data are presented for the five distinct nine-week training phases for each of the
variables. Namely Phase 1: general preparation; Phase 2: specific preparation; Phase 3: early
competition season; Phase 4: mid-competition season; and Phase 5: end of competition
season. Training was also categorised by the time of day the sessions were completed each
week (i.e., early training commenced before 8:00am; morning training commenced between
8:00am and 12:00pm; afternoon training commenced between 1:00pm and 4:00pm; evening
training commenced from 5:00pm onwards). Cohen’s d effect sizes were calculated to
determine if changes noted between phases were meaningful for the data [23].
RESULTS
Across the course of the study, the athlete completed 480 training sessions, cycled over
12,000 km, and competed in 15 events. The details of the training log data are presented in
Table 1, with the results averaged for each of the nine-week training phases. MTDS data
indicated that his responses for depression, perceived stress, fatigue and physical signs and
symptoms all peaked during phase 4. This was reflected in a concurrent marked decrease in
vigour at this point which is indicated in Figure 1. These observed changes were consistent
with the presentation of common symptoms of OTS that were noted by a Medical Doctor at
the same time the MTDS data peaked, and he was classified as experiencing burnout as
measured by the ABQ. Changes in the athletes MTDS and ABQ scores are presented in
Figure 1 and Figure 2 respectively.
Table 1. Training Log - Average Values for Each Phase as Recorded by the
Triathlete
General Specific Start of Main End of
preparation preparation competitive competitive competitive
season phase season
Phase # P1 = 9 wks P2 = 9 wks P3 = 9 wks P4 = 9 wks P5 = 9 wks
Early 4.1 4.0 4.7 3.9 3.6
Morning 3.2 2.9 2.2 2.5 2.7
Afternoon 2.6 3.1 2.3 1.6 1.4
Evening 1.9 1.4 0.7 0.8 2.6
Total 11.8 11.4 9.9 8.8 10.3
Swim 2.6 3.3 3.2 2.7 2.5
Ride 5.0 2.8 2.3 2.0 2.1
Run 1.6 2.9 2.4 2.2 2.6
Other 2.6 2.4 2.0 1.9 3.1
Coached 5.1 4.1 3.8 3.2 2.2
Group 1.3 2.3 1.6 1.6 2.1
Individual 5.4 5.0 4.4 3.9 5.7
Av. duration (hrs: min) 1:46 1:27 1:20 1:08 1:15
Training volume (hrs/wk) 20.8 16.6 13.2 9.9 12.8
Anecdotal evidence was as follows. Throughout the initial nine week phase, the athlete
perceived that he was “on track” with training, and he viewed any minor aches and pains to
be a result of training. There was a slight reduction in training during phase 2 due to injury
and illness, but by the commencement of phase 3 he was back on track. The competitive
Average number of sessions /week
26 Overtraining or Burnout: A Training and Psycho-Behavioural Case Study
Citations
More filters
Journal Article•DOI•
The Impact of Triathlon Training and Racing on Athletes’ General Health

[...]

Veronica E. Vleck1, Grégoire P. Millet2, Francisco Alves1•
University of Lisbon1, University of Lausanne2
08 Oct 2014-Sports Medicine
TL;DR: The data thus far collected indicate that the sport of triathlon is relatively safe for the well-prepared, well-supplied athlete, and training diaries may prove to be a promising method of monitoring negative adaptation and its potential risk factors.
Abstract: Although the sport of triathlon provides an opportunity to research the effect of multi-disciplinary exercise on health across the lifespan, much remains to be done. The literature has failed to consistently or adequately report subject age group, sex, ability level, and/or event-distance specialization. The demands of training and racing are relatively unquantified. Multiple definitions and reporting methods for injury and illness have been implemented. In general, risk factors for maladaptation have not been well-described. The data thus far collected indicate that the sport of triathlon is relatively safe for the well-prepared, well-supplied athlete. Most injuries 'causing cessation or reduction of training or seeking of medical aid' are not serious. However, as the extent to which they recur may be high and is undocumented, injury outcome is unclear. The sudden death rate for competition is 1.5 (0.9-2.5) [mostly swim-related] occurrences for every 100,000 participations. The sudden death rate is unknown for training, although stroke risk may be increased, in the long-term, in genetically susceptible athletes. During heavy training and up to 5 days post-competition, host protection against pathogens may also be compromised. The incidence of illness seems low, but its outcome is unclear. More prospective investigation of the immunological, oxidative stress-related and cardiovascular effects of triathlon training and competition is warranted. Training diaries may prove to be a promising method of monitoring negative adaptation and its potential risk factors. More longitudinal, medical-tent-based studies of the aetiology and treatment demands of race-related injury and illness are needed.

37 citations

Cites background or methods from "Overtraining or burnout : a trainin..."

  • ...Each of the three athlete burnout subscales affected by psychological*** stressors and training factors* Main and Landers [10] 1 M Visual inspection of retrospective case study of weekly ABQ and MTDS, obtained for 45 weeks from season start, in conjunction with semi-structured interviews and consultation with sports doctor ABQ factor 1 (reduced sense of accomplishment), ABQ factor 2 (sport devaluation), ABQ factor 3 (emotional and physical exhaustion); MTDS factors 1–6 (depression, vigour, physical signs and symptoms, sleep disturbances, perceived stress, and fatigue, respectively) Athlete burnout and overtraining syndrome may develop simultaneously and be confused with each other Plews et al. [305] 1 M, 1 F elite Linear regression of daily HRV data obtained over 77 days for one athlete who became NFOR and one who did not 7-day rolling average of the log- transformed square root of the mean sum of the squared differences between R-R intervals, coefficient of variation of HRV (CV of the aforementioned variable) 7-day rolling average of the log- transformed square root of the mean sum of the squared differences between R-R intervals ; towards race day in NFOR athlete, remaining stable in control....

    [...]

  • ...because it can avoid the possible problems with athletes’ or coaches’ (as opposed to researchers’) reliance on mainly visual analyses [10] of graphical profiles....

    [...]

  • ...Profile of Mood States for Children [POMS-C]) [10, 12, 300] and various signs and symptoms of illness and injury [12], assess mood disturbance, perceived stress and training or other distress symptoms to various degrees....

    [...]

  • ...Scores on questionnaires such as the Daily Analysis of Life Demands for Athletes (DALDA) [90], the Recovery-Stress Questionnaire for Athletes (RESTQ-Sport) [303], the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS), the Training Distress Scale (TDS), the Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ) and the Multi-component Training Distress Scale (MTDS) [10, 11], as well as on a combination of shortened versions of the Profile of Mood States (such as the Brunel Mood Scale [BRUMS] and the Table 4 Risk factors for injury that have been directly assessed in the triathlon literature (modified and updated from Vleck [202], with permission) Possible risk factor Injury variable Significant relationship (at the 95 % confidence level or higher) observed between risk factor and injury variable Yes No Sex Overuse injury occurrence Vleck [12] (Retros: anatomical location) Collins et al. [211], Villavicencio et al. [226] (BP), Williams et al. [210], Manninen and Kallinen [216], Egermann et al. [222] (LB), Zwingenberger et al. [232], Korkia et al. [214], Burns et al. [221], Gosling et al. [238] Number of injuries – Vleck [12] (Retros: OD, IM of E, SE or rec level) Age Injury occurrence Egermann et al. [222], Gosling et al. [238] Collins et al. [211], Zwingenberger et al. [232] Height Injury occurrence – Vleck and Garbutt [14], Vleck [12] (Retros: OD F and IM of both sexes), Korkia et al. [214] Body mass index Injury occurrence – Collins et al. [211], Vleck and Garbutt [14], Korkia et al. [214], Villavicencio et al. [226], Vleck [12] (Retros: OD F and IM of both sexes) COL5A1 CC1 genotype Exercise-associated muscle cramping O’Connell et al. [315] – Foot type, orthopaedic problems Injury occurrence Burns et al. [225] Vleck [12] (Retros: F), Vleck and Garbutt [14] Orthopaedic problems Overuse injury incidence – Vleck and Garbutt [14] Previous injury Injury incidence Korkia et al. [214]***, O’ Toole et al. [203], Burns et al. [221], Migliorini [213], Villavicencio et al. [226] (BP, NP) Manninen and Kallinen [216] (lower limb, LB) Achilles tendon, hamstring, knee and lower-back injury Calf injury occurrence Vleck and Garbutt [14] – Diet Injury occurrence – Vleck and Garbutt [14]a Use of NSAIDs Hyponatremia Wharam et al. [281] – Restless sleeper, restless sleep, health worries Overuse injury incidence – Vleck and Garbutt [14] Psychological state/total mood disturbance (basic analysis)/ daily or weekly hassles Overuse injury incidence Fawkner et al. [219] (daily hassles)b Vleck and Garbutt [14] Position on cycle/degree of trunk flexion on cycle/use of aerobars Overuse injury incidence – Vleck and Garbutt [14], Manninen and Kallinen [216] (LB) Cycle gear ratio/crank length Cycle injury – Massimino et al. [209], Vleck and Garbutt [14] Use of and type of clipless pedals Overuse injury incidence – Vleck and Garbutt [14] Cycle cadence Overuse injury incidence – Massimino et al. [209], Vleck and Garbutt [14] Cycling cadence trained at Overuse injury incidencee – Massimino et al. [209], Vleck and Garbutt [14] Faulty running shoe construction Plantar fasciitis Wilk et al. [220]c – Training in other sports Overuse injury incidence Collins et al. [211]* Manninen and Kallinen [216] Sporting background Injury occurrence Williams et al. [210] (B) Vleck and Garbutt [14], Korkia et al. [214] Initial sporting background Overuse injury incidenced Williams et al. [210] (B) Collins et al. [211] Level reached in single sport Injury incidence – Vleck [12] (Retros) Table 4 continued Possible risk factor Injury variable Significant relationship (at the 95 % confidence level or higher) observed between risk factor and injury variable Yes No Years of competitive experience Injury occurrence Burns et al. [221] (R), Williams et al. [210] (T, r = 0.17***) Vleck [12] (Retros: S, B, R, elite OD M), Villavicencio et al. [226] (NP) Injury incidence Korkia et al. [214], Williams et al. [210], Egermann et al. [222], Villavicencio et al. [226] (NP) Vleck and Garbutt [14] Years of competitive swimming or cycling experience Vleck [12] (Retros: E, SE or age-group OD M or F) Years of competitive running experience Number of running injuries Vleck [12] (Retros: IM M, r = 0.59**) Vleck [12] (Retros: OD M) Number of triathlons participated in/years of triathlon experience Low BP or neck pain Villavicencio et al. [226] (NP), Korkia et al. [214] Collins et al. [211] Athletic status Overuse injury incidence – Collins et al. [211], Villavicencio et al. [226] (BP) Athlete ability level Injury incidence Shaw et al. [224], Egermann et al. [222] Korkia et al. [214], Vleck and Garbutt [14] (for anatomical location) Performance level Injury incidence Egermann et al. [222] (muscle tendon injury) Zwingenberger et al. [232] (top 50 or bottom 50...

    [...]

  • ...Main and Landers [10] 1 M Visual inspection of retrospective case study of weekly ABQ and MTDS, obtained for 45 weeks from season start, in conjunction with semi-structured interviews and consultation with sports doctor ABQ factor 1 (reduced sense of accomplishment), ABQ factor 2 (sport devaluation), ABQ factor 3 (emotional and physical exhaustion); MTDS factors 1–6 (depression, vigour, physical signs and symptoms, sleep disturbances, perceived stress, and fatigue, respectively) Athlete burnout and overtraining syndrome may develop simultaneously and be confused with each other...

    [...]

Journal Article•DOI•
Psychological tools used for monitoring training responses of athletes

[...]

Anu Nässi1, Alexander Ferrauti1, Tim Meyer2, Mark Pfeiffer3, Michael Kellmann4, Michael Kellmann1 •
Ruhr University Bochum1, Saarland University2, University of Mainz3, University of Queensland4
01 Jun 2017-Performance enhancement and health
TL;DR: A review of current psychological tools used in training contexts among athletes can be found in this article, where the authors provide an overview and evaluation of current tools used to monitor athletes' responses to training and other life stressors.
Abstract: Monitoring athletes’ responses to training and other life stressors is crucial for implementing favourable training routines and achieving optimal performances. The purpose of this review is to provide an overview and evaluation of current psychological tools used in training contexts among athletes. The instruments discussed include the Profile of Mood States (POMS), the Emotional Recovery Questionnaire (EmRecQ), the Total Quality Recovery (TQR) scale, the Daily Analyses of Life Demands for Athletes (DALDA), the Recovery-Stress Questionnaire for Athletes (RESTQ-Sport), the Acute Recovery and Stress Scale (ARSS), the Short Recovery and Stress Scale (SRSS), and the Multi-Component Training Distress Scale (MTDS). Each measure has been shown to deliver valuable information for athletes and coaches regarding individual responses to training. These responses are measured by observing changes in mood, emotions, perceived stress and recovery, and sleep quality. Practitioners need to consider the appropriateness of each psychological tool in the context of their particular group. Regardless of which methods are employed, care should be taken to employ measurement in a systematic manner, provide timely feedback, and consider frequency as not to burden athletes too much. While psychological measures are an important part of avoiding maladaptive training responses, performance and physiological changes also need to be taken into account.

23 citations

Journal Article•DOI•
Entwicklung des akutmaßes zur erfassung von erholung und beanspruchung im sport

[...]

Brit Hitzschke, Theresa Holst, Alexander Ferrauti, Tim Meyer, Mark Pfeiffer, Michael Kellmann 
02 May 2016-Diagnostica
TL;DR: In this paper, a kompakten and sensitiven psychometrischen Messinstrument zur quantifizierung von Erholung and Beanspruchung was nachgegangen.
Abstract: Zusammenfassung. In dem vom Bundesinstitut fur Sportwissenschaft geforderten Verbundprojekt REGman wird mit der Entwicklung des Akutmases zur Erfassung von Erholung und Beanspruchung im Sport (AEB) dem Wunsch der Sportpraxis nach einem kompakten und sensitiven psychometrischen Messinstrument zur Quantifizierung von Erholung und Beanspruchung nachgegangen. Nach einer Expertenbefragung wurde eine erste Fragebogenversion an Sportstudierenden (N = 257) getestet. Basierend auf den Ergebnissen einer exploratorischen Faktoren- und Reliabilitatsanalyse wurde jeweils ein Modell fur Erholung und fur Beanspruchung mit insgesamt 32 Adjektiven erstellt. Zur Uberprufung dieser Modelle durch eine konfirmatorische Faktorenanalyse wurde die uberarbeitete Version zunachst an einer Gruppe leistungsorientierter Sportlerinnen und Sportler (N = 429) getestet, leicht modifiziert und anschliesend an einer Gruppe von Leistungssportlerinnen und -sportlern (N = 574) konfirmatorisch validiert. Es zeigten sich gute Fit-Indizes sowie ...

22 citations

Journal Article•DOI•
Evaluation of psychological measures for the assessment of recovery and stress during a shock-microcycle in strength and high-intensity interval training

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Brit Hitzschke1, Thimo Wiewelhove1, Christian Raeder1, Alexander Ferrauti1, Tim Meyer2, Mark Pfeiffer3, Michael Kellmann4, Michael Kellmann1, Sarah Kölling5, Sarah Kölling1 •
Ruhr University Bochum1, Saarland University2, University of Mainz3, University of Queensland4, Stellenbosch University5
01 Jun 2017-Performance enhancement and health
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors analyzed the intraindividual change and criterion sensitivity of the Acute Recovery and Stress Scale (ARSS) and its abridged version the Short Recovery and stress Scale (SRSS) in response to a 6-day microcycle of intensified strength training (STM) and high-intensity interval training (HIIT) in comparison with the change in the criterion measures maximal dynamic strength (estimated 1 repetition maximum [1RMest]; STM) or repeated sprint ability (RSA; HIIT), and compared descriptively the results of the subjective
Abstract: The aim of this paper was a) to analyse the intraindividual change and criterion sensitivity of the Acute Recovery and Stress Scale (ARSS) and its abridged version the Short Recovery and Stress Scale (SRSS) in response to a 6-day microcycle of intensified strength training (STM) and high-intensity interval training (HIIT) in comparison with the change in the criterion measures maximal dynamic strength (estimated 1 repetition maximum [1RMest]; STM) or repeated sprint ability (RSA; HIIT), and b) to compare descriptively the results of the subjective measures with earlier reported physiological and performance markers of the same study. Participants were 23 (STM; 23.7 ± 2.0 years) and 22 (HIIT; 22.8 ± 2.6) well-trained athletes who completed 11 training sessions over 6 days to induce functional overload. The ARSS scales and the SRSS items were assessed every morning and the criterion measures 3 times (pre, post1, post2). Changes were analysed over the entire period and from pre- to post training as well as after 72-h of recovery. ARSS and SRSS ratings and the criterion measures presented deteriorations upon the intensive training as well as improvements following the recovery period. The overall and physical-related scales/items demonstrated large change effects in response to the physical stress stimulus in both training protocols (Cohen’s d between |0.92| and |2.04|). The mental-related scales/items described moderate to large change effects (d = |0.30| to |0.73|) and the emotional-related scales/items small to moderate change effects (d = |0.07| to |0.51|). The sensitivity analyses revealed the highest diagnostic effectiveness also in the overall (45.50% to 73.90%) and physical-related (45.50% to 69.90%) scales/items, but they did not discriminate exactly athletes in fatigued or recovered state compared to the performance criterion measures. Correlation analyses also revealed no significant relationships between the changes in the scales/items and in the criterion measures. On a descriptive basis, comparisons with the change effect sizes and the sensitivity results of the performance and physiological markers underline the importance of psychological markers for the assessment of recovery and stress. Furthermore, the gained experiences in application and evaluation promote the practicability and economy of the questionnaires favouring the combination of subjective and objective markers for training monitoring in sports. The application and interpretation should mainly focus on the individual and longitudinal level.

18 citations

Journal Article•DOI•
Stress/recovery balance during the Girobio: profile of highly trained road cyclists

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Edson Filho, S. di Fronso, Fabio Forzini1, Tiziano Agostini1, Laura Bortoli, Claudio Robazza, Maurizio Bertollo •
University of Trieste1
04 Sep 2013-Sport Sciences for Health
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors compared the magnitude of pre-post recovery and stress scores among highly trained cyclists participating in the 2012 Girobio-2012, and identified stress/recovery balance factors that remained constant from pre- to post-race testing.
Abstract: The purposes of this study were to (a) determine and compare the magnitude of pre–post recovery and stress scores among highly trained cyclists participating in the “Girobio”, and (b) identify stress/recovery balance factors that remained constant from pre- to post-race testing. Sixty-seven cyclists with extensive international experience and representing various teams participated in the study. Data were collected during the Girobio-2012, a multi-stage competition for Under 23 and Elite cycling categories, held annually in Italy. Participants responded to the Recovery-Stress Questionnaire for Sport 1 day before the first stage (test, T1) and on the day of the ninth/final stage (i.e., 5 h prior to the start) (retest, T2). Compared to test scores, at retest we expected to find higher stress and lower recovery values for all subscales with the exception of self-efficacy and self-regulation, which reflect goal-oriented experiences rather than psychophysical states linked to a given race. Overall, results were in this expected direction. No significant effects were found for one general stress subscale (i.e., Conflict/Pressure), two general recovery subscales (i.e., Success and Social Recovery), and two sport-specific recovery subscales (i.e., Personal Accomplishment, and Self-Efficacy), thus suggesting the stability of these stress/recovery factors over time. Collectively, these findings reinforce the importance of assessing multiple indicators of stress/recovery balance to establish mental training guidelines aimed at addressing and preventing both temporary and relatively chronic maladaptation among cyclists.

16 citations

Cites background or result from "Overtraining or burnout : a trainin..."

  • ...particularly related to overarching and overtraining states in different sport activities [5, 6, 8, 10]....

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  • ...The relationship between training loads and stress/ recovery balance has received great attention in the sport and exercise psychology literature [5, 6]....

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  • ...Overall results were in the expected direction, mirrored previous findings [5, 6, 10, 11, 17], and followed...

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References
More filters
Journal Article•DOI•
A power primer.

[...]

Jacob Cohen1•
York University1
01 Jul 1992-Psychological Bulletin
TL;DR: A convenient, although not comprehensive, presentation of required sample sizes is providedHere the sample sizes necessary for .80 power to detect effects at these levels are tabled for eight standard statistical tests.
Abstract: One possible reason for the continued neglect of statistical power analysis in research in the behavioral sciences is the inaccessibility of or difficulty with the standard material. A convenient, although not comprehensive, presentation of required sample sizes is provided here. Effect-size indexes and conventional values for these are given for operationally defined small, medium, and large effects. The sample sizes necessary for .80 power to detect effects at these levels are tabled for eight standard statistical tests: (a) the difference between independent means, (b) the significance of a product-moment correlation, (c) the difference between independent rs, (d) the sign test, (e) the difference between independent proportions, (f) chi-square tests for goodness of fit and contingency tables, (g) one-way analysis of variance, and (h) the significance of a multiple or multiple partial correlation.

38,291 citations

Additional excerpts

  • ...Cohen’s d effect sizes were calculated to determine if changes noted between phases were meaningful for the data [23]....

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Journal Article•DOI•
The measurement of experienced burnout

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Christina Maslach1, Susan E. Jackson1•
University of California, Berkeley1
01 Apr 1981-Journal of Organizational Behavior
TL;DR: A scale designed to assess various aspects of the burnout syndrome was administered to a wide range of human services professionals as discussed by the authors, and three subscales emerged from the data analysis: emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and personal accomplishment.
Abstract: A scale designed to assess various aspects of the burnout syndrome was administered to a wide range of human services professionals. Three subscales emerged from the data analysis: emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and personal accomplishment. Various psychometric analyses showed that the scale has both high reliability and validity as a measure of burnout.

10,212 citations

"Overtraining or burnout : a trainin..." refers background in this paper

  • ...Current research trends have proposed a motivational approach to the study of burnout in elite athletes [9-11], while still using the original conceptualisation of burnout in professional health-care settings [12]....

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Journal Article•DOI•
Physiology and Neurobiology of Stress and Adaptation: Central Role of the Brain

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Bruce S. McEwen1•
Rockefeller University1
01 Jul 2007-Physiological Reviews
TL;DR: As an adjunct to pharmaceutical therapy, social and behavioral interventions such as regular physical activity and social support reduce the chronic stress burden and benefit brain and body health and resilience.
Abstract: The brain is the key organ of the response to stress because it determines what is threatening and, therefore, potentially stressful, as well as the physiological and behavioral responses which can be either adaptive or damaging. Stress involves two-way communication between the brain and the cardiovascular, immune, and other systems via neural and endocrine mechanisms. Beyond the "flight-or-fight" response to acute stress, there are events in daily life that produce a type of chronic stress and lead over time to wear and tear on the body ("allostatic load"). Yet, hormones associated with stress protect the body in the short-run and promote adaptation ("allostasis"). The brain is a target of stress, and the hippocampus was the first brain region, besides the hypothalamus, to be recognized as a target of glucocorticoids. Stress and stress hormones produce both adaptive and maladaptive effects on this brain region throughout the life course. Early life events influence life-long patterns of emotionality and stress responsiveness and alter the rate of brain and body aging. The hippocampus, amygdala, and prefrontal cortex undergo stress-induced structural remodeling, which alters behavioral and physiological responses. As an adjunct to pharmaceutical therapy, social and behavioral interventions such as regular physical activity and social support reduce the chronic stress burden and benefit brain and body health and resilience.

3,062 citations

Journal Article•DOI•
Development and Preliminary Validation of an Athlete Burnout Measure.

[...]

Thomas D. Raedeke1, Alan L. Smith2•
East Carolina University1, Purdue University2
01 Dec 2001-Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology
TL;DR: A psychometrically sound measure of athlete burnout was developed that correlated positively with stress, trait anxiety, and amotivation, and correlated negatively with coping, social support, enjoyment, commitment, and intrinsic motivation indices across the two studies.
Abstract: The purpose of this research was to develop a psychometrically sound measure of athlete burnout. In Study 1, exploratory factor analysis revealed burn-out dimensions reflective of emotional/physical exhaustion, reduced sense of swimming accomplishment, and swimming devaluation. In two subsequent studies, the psychometric properties of a refined version of this measure were examined. Independent samples of senior age-group swimmers and college athletes from a variety of sports completed a questionnaire that tapped the three burnout dimensions as well as stress- and motivation-related variables. Confirmatory factor analysis and alternative model testing supported the specified three-factor burnout model. In support of construct validity, the burnout subscales correlated positively with stress, trait anxiety, and amotivation, and correlated negatively with coping, social support, enjoyment, commitment, and intrinsic motivation indices across the two studies.

743 citations

"Overtraining or burnout : a trainin..." refers background in this paper

  • ...While burnout is a commonly used term within the sporting community, there is much debate as to the definition and measurement of athlete burnout [5]....

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Journal Article•DOI•
What Is This Thing Called Mental Toughness? An Investigation of Elite Sport Performers

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Graham Jones, Sheldon Hanton, Declan Connaughton
30 Oct 2002-Journal of Applied Sport Psychology
TL;DR: The literature on mental toughness is characterized by a general lack of conceptual clarity and consensus as to its definition, as well as a general failure to operationalize the construct in a con....
Abstract: The literature on mental toughness is characterized by a general lack of conceptual clarity and consensus as to its definition, as well as a general failure to operationalize the construct in a con...

662 citations

"Overtraining or burnout : a trainin..." refers methods in this paper

  • ...To check for content validity and control for researcher bias, traditional checking procedures were employed [21, 22]....

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Related Papers (5)
Development and Preliminary Validation of an Athlete Burnout Measure.

[...]

01 Dec 2001-Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology
Thomas D. Raedeke, Alan L. Smith
Preventing overtraining in athletes in high-intensity sports and stress/recovery monitoring

[...]

14 Sep 2010-Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports
Michael Kellmann
Can motivation and overtraining predict burnout in professional soccer athletes in different periods of the season

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04 Mar 2021-International journal of sport and exercise psychology
Leonardo Henrique Silva Fagundes, Franco Noce, Maicon Rodrigues Albuquerque, André Gustavo Pereira de Andrade, Varley Teoldo da Costa 
Monitoring the athlete training response: subjective self-reported measures trump commonly used objective measures: a systematic review.

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01 Mar 2016-British Journal of Sports Medicine
Anna E Saw, Luana C. Main, Paul B. Gastin
Changes in perceived stress and recovery in overreached young elite soccer players

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01 Apr 2012-Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports
Michel Brink, Chris Visscher, Aaron J. Coutts, Koen A.P.M. Lemmink, Koen A.P.M. Lemmink 
Frequently Asked Questions (9)
Q1. What are the contributions mentioned in the paper "Overtraining or burnout: a training and psycho-behavioural case study" ?

The aim of this article is to present case study data that challenges the popular conception that athlete burnout represents the ultimate outcome of overtraining. Results were analysed retrospectively upon completion of the season and followed up with semi-structured interviews with the coach and athlete. Thus the authors are advocating a need for future research to clarify differences between these two training-stress syndromes, specifically in relation to their aetiology, to avoid misdiagnosis and to ensure appropriate treatment for athletes experiencing these conditions is provided. 

Thus these results indicate that NF-OR and burnout may co-exist and that these two states are independent of one another ; highlighting the need for further research, to better clarify or distinguish between these two states to avoid misdiagnosis and to ensure appropriate treatment is prescribed. As such, further research is required to better understand these two states and determine whether they are independent of one another or whether they are intrinsically interrelated. 

The six MTDS factors measured were: Depression (F1), Vigour (F2), Physical Signs and Symptoms (F3), Sleep disturbances (F4), Perceived stress (F5) and Fatigue (F6). 

There was a slight reduction in training during phase 2 due to injury and illness, but by the commencement of phase 3 he was back on track. 

Despite a heavy competition schedule, he maintained a high training volume load, and on one occasion, completed six sessions in one day. 

Training was also categorised by the time of day the sessions were completed each week (i.e., early training commenced before 8:00am; morning training commenced between 8:00am and 12:00pm; afternoon training commenced between 1:00pm and 4:00pm; evening training commenced from 5:00pm onwards). 

Throughout the initial nine week phase, the athlete perceived that he was “on track” with training, and he viewed any minor aches and pains to be a result of training. 

The current case study serves to highlight why athlete burnout and OT need to be clearly defined, to avoid misdiagnosis and to ensure that appropriate treatment is obtained for athletes suffering from burnout or NF-OR/OTS. 

The following weekend, at the State Aquathalon Championships, he suffered from spatial disorientation in the water, and considered withdrawing during the race, which is something he has never done before.