Pesticide Exposure, Safety Issues, and Risk Assessment Indicators
06 May 2011-International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (MDPI))-Vol. 8, Iss: 5, pp 1402-1419
TL;DR: New tools or techniques with greater reliability than those already existing are needed to predict the potential hazards of pesticides and thus contribute to reduction of the adverse effects on human health and the environment.
Abstract: Pesticides are widely used in agricultural production to prevent or control pests, diseases, weeds, and other plant pathogens in an effort to reduce or eliminate yield losses and maintain high product quality. Although pesticides are developed through very strict regulation processes to function with reasonable certainty and minimal impact on human health and the environment, serious concerns have been raised about health risks resulting from occupational exposure and from residues in food and drinking water. Occupational exposure to pesticides often occurs in the case of agricultural workers in open fields and greenhouses, workers in the pesticide industry, and exterminators of house pests. Exposure of the general population to pesticides occurs primarily through eating food and drinking water contaminated with pesticide residues, whereas substantial exposure can also occur in or around the home. Regarding the adverse effects on the environment (water, soil and air contamination from leaching, runoff, and spray drift, as well as the detrimental effects on wildlife, fish, plants, and other non-target organisms), many of these effects depend on the toxicity of the pesticide, the measures taken during its application, the dosage applied, the adsorption on soil colloids, the weather conditions prevailing after application, and how long the pesticide persists in the environment. Therefore, the risk assessment of the impact of pesticides either on human health or on the environment is not an easy and particularly accurate process because of differences in the periods and levels of exposure, the types of pesticides used (regarding toxicity and persistence), and the environmental characteristics of the areas where pesticides are usually applied. Also, the number of the criteria used and the method of their implementation to assess the adverse effects of pesticides on human health could affect risk assessment and would possibly affect the characterization of the already approved pesticides and the approval of the new compounds in the near future. Thus, new tools or techniques with greater reliability than those already existing are needed to predict the potential hazards of pesticides and thus contribute to reduction of the adverse effects on human health and the environment. On the other hand, the implementation of alternative cropping systems that are less dependent on pesticides, the development of new pesticides with novel modes of action and improved safety profiles, and the improvement of the already used pesticide formulations towards safer formulations (e.g., microcapsule suspensions) could reduce the adverse effects of farming and particularly the toxic effects of pesticides. In addition, the use of appropriate and well-maintained spraying equipment along with taking all precautions that are required in all stages of pesticide handling could minimize human exposure to pesticides and their potential adverse effects on the environment.
Citations
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TL;DR: In this article, an exhaustive review on the treatment of various synthetic and real wastewaters by five key EAOPs, i.e., anodic oxidation (AO), anodic oxidation with electrogenerated H 2 O 2, electro-Fenton (EF), photoelectro-fenton (PEF), alone and in combination with other methods like biological treatment, electrocoagulation, coagulation and membrane filtration processes.
Abstract: Over the last decades, research efforts have been made at developing more effective technologies for the remediation of waters containing persistent organic pollutants. Among the various technologies, the so-called electrochemical advanced oxidation processes (EAOPs) have caused increasing interest. These technologies are based on the electrochemical generation of strong oxidants such as hydroxyl radicals ( OH). Here, we present an exhaustive review on the treatment of various synthetic and real wastewaters by five key EAOPs, i.e., anodic oxidation (AO), anodic oxidation with electrogenerated H 2 O 2 (AO-H 2 O 2 ), electro-Fenton (EF), photoelectro-Fenton (PEF) and solar photoelectro-Fenton (SPEF), alone and in combination with other methods like biological treatment, electrocoagulation, coagulation and membrane filtration processes. Fundamentals of each EAOP are also given.
1,457 citations
TL;DR: A comprehensive review on pesticides with respect to their types, environmental distribution, routes of exposure, and health impacts is presented to reduce the impacts of pesticides.
1,128 citations
Cites background or methods from "Pesticide Exposure, Safety Issues, ..."
...Repeated application of pesticides leads to loss of biodiversity and increased pest resistance, while its effects on other species facilitate pest resurgence (Damalas and Eleftherohorinos, 2011)....
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...009 Pesticides are distributed throughout the human body through the bloodstream but can be excreted through urine, skin, and exhaled air (Damalas and Eleftherohorinos, 2011)....
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...Inhalation of sufficient amounts of pesticides may cause serious damage to nose, throat, and lung tissues (Damalas and Eleftherohorinos, 2011)....
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...Even very low levels of exposure may have adverse health effects at early development (Damalas and Eleftherohorinos, 2011)....
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...Please cite this article as: Kim, K.-H., et al., Exposure to pesticides and th dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.09.009 Pesticides are distributed throughout the human body through the bloodstream but can be excreted through urine, skin, and exhaled air (Damalas and Eleftherohorinos, 2011)....
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TL;DR: This critical review investigated the potential of nanotechnology, especially the nanoencapsulation process for pesticide delivery, to reduce the dosage of pesticides and human exposure to them and provides fundamental and critical information for researchers and engineers in the field of nantechnology.
Abstract: The application of nanotechnology in pesticide delivery is relatively new and in the early stages of development. This technology aims to reduce the indiscriminate use of conventional pesticides and ensure their safe application. This critical review investigated the potential of nanotechnology, especially the nanoencapsulation process for pesticide delivery. In-depth investigation of various nanoencapsulation materials and techniques, efficacy of application, and current research trends are also presented. The focus of ongoing research was on the development of a nanoencapsulated pesticide formulation that has slow releasing properties with enhanced solubility, permeability, and stability. These properties are mainly achieved through either protecting the encapsulated active ingredients from premature degradation or increasing their pest control efficacy for a longer period. Nanoencapsulated pesticide formulation is able to reduce the dosage of pesticides and human exposure to them, which is environmenta...
552 citations
TL;DR: In this article, a general and critical review on the application of photoelectrocatalysis to the remediation of wastewaters with organic pollutants is presented, with special attention on different kinds of photocatalysts utilized and preparation methods of the most ubiquitous TiO2 materials.
Abstract: A large variety of electrochemical advanced oxidation processes (EAOPs) have been recently developed to remove organic pollutants from wastewaters to avoid their serious health-risk factors from their environmental accumulation and to reuse the treated water for human activities. The effectiveness of EAOPs is based on the in situ production of strong reactive oxygen species (ROS) like hydroxyl radical ( OH). Photoelectrocatalysis (PEC) has emerged as a promising powerful EAOP by combining photocatalytic and electrolytic processes. It consists in the promotion of electrons from the valence band to the conduction band of a semiconductor photocatalyst upon light irradiation, with production of positive holes. The fast recombination of the electron/hole pairs formed is avoided in PEC by applying an external bias potential to the photocatalyst that extracts the photogenerated electrons up to the cathode of the electrolytic cell. Organics can be oxidized directly by the holes, •OH formed from water oxidation with holes and other ROS produced between the electrons and dissolved O2. This paper presents a general and critical review on the application of PEC to the remediation of wastewaters with organic pollutants. Special attention is made over the different kinds of photocatalysts utilized and preparation methods of the most ubiquitous TiO2 materials. Typical PEC systems and main operation variables that affect the effectiveness of the degradation process are also examined. An exhaustive analysis of the advances obtained on the treatment of dyes, chemicals and pharmaceuticals from synthetic solutions, as well as of real wastewaters, is performed. Finally, research prospects are proposed for the future development of PEC with perspectives to industrial application.
530 citations
TL;DR: A review of the potential technologies to remove the contaminations from water is presented in this article, which includes concepts and potentialities of the technologies in a comprehensible form, including meaningful hybrid technologies and promising awaited technologies in coming years.
Abstract: Water is of fundamental importance for life on earth. The synthesis and structure of cell constituents and transport of nutrients into the cells as well as body metabolism depend on water. The contaminations present in water disturb the spontaneity of the mechanism and result in long/short-term diseases. The probable contaminations and their possible routes are discussed in the present review. Continued research efforts result in some processes/technologies to remove the contaminations from water. The review includes concepts and potentialities of the technologies in a comprehensible form. It also includes some meaningful hybrid technologies and promising awaited technologies in coming years.
520 citations
Cites background from "Pesticide Exposure, Safety Issues, ..."
...• Pesticides contaminate through agricultural as well as public hygienic sources (Damalas and Eleftherohorinos 2011; Younes and Galal-Gorchev 2000)....
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...• Pesticides contaminate through agricultural as well as public hygienic sources (Damalas and Eleftherohorinos 2011; Younes and Galal-Gorchev 2000)....
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References
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TL;DR: The tradeoffs that may occur between provisioning services and other ecosystem services and disservices should be evaluated in terms of spatial scale, temporal scale and reversibility, and the potential for ‘win–win’ scenarios increases.
Abstract: Agricultural ecosystems provide humans with food, forage, bioenergy and pharmaceuticals and are essential to human wellbeing. These systems rely on ecosystem services provided by natural ecosystems, including pollination, biological pest control, maintenance of soil structure and fertility, nutrient cycling and hydrological services. Preliminary assessments indicate that the value of these ecosystem services to agriculture is enormous and often underappreciated. Agroecosystems also produce a variety of ecosystem services, such as regulation of soil and water quality, carbon sequestration, support for biodiversity and cultural services. Depending on management practices, agriculture can also be the source of numerous disservices, including loss of wildlife habitat, nutrient runoff, sedimentation of waterways, greenhouse gas emissions, and pesticide poisoning of humans and non-target species. The tradeoffs that may occur between provisioning services and other ecosystem services and disservices should be evaluated in terms of spatial scale, temporal scale and reversibility. As more effective methods for valuing ecosystem services become available, the potential for ‘win–win’ scenarios increases. Under all scenarios, appropriate agricultural management practices are critical to realizing the benefits of ecosystem services and reducing disservices from agricultural activities.
1,732 citations
"Pesticide Exposure, Safety Issues, ..." refers background in this paper
...Within this context, pesticide use has raised serious concerns not only of potential effects on human health, but also about impacts on wildlife and sensitive ecosystems [14-16]....
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TL;DR: The EU Rural Development Regulation (1257/99) provides an opportunity to implement measures for alleviating ecological impacts of arable management through a combination of cross-compliance and agri-environment schemes that integrate social, cultural, economic and ecological objectives for multifunctional land use.
1,223 citations
"Pesticide Exposure, Safety Issues, ..." refers background in this paper
...Within this context, pesticide use has raised serious concerns not only of potential effects on human health, but also about impacts on wildlife and sensitive ecosystems [14-16]....
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TL;DR: Although viruses cause serious problems in potatoes and sugar beets in some areas, worldwide losses due to viruses averaged 6–7% on these crops and overall, weeds had the highest loss potential with animal pests and pathogens being less important.
1,168 citations
"Pesticide Exposure, Safety Issues, ..." refers background in this paper
...Pesticides are widely used in most sectors of the agricultural production to prevent or reduce losses by pests and thus can improve yield as well as quality of the produce, even in terms of cosmetic appeal, which is often important to consumers [1,2]....
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TL;DR: Twenty five years after its first enunciation, IPM is recognized as one of the most robust constructs to arise in the agricultural sciences during the second half of the twentieth century and followed multiple paths in several countries and reached beyond the confines of entomological sciences.
Abstract: Twenty five years after its first enunciation, IPM is recognized as one of the most robust constructs to arise in the agricultural sciences during the second half of the twentieth century. The history of IPM, however, can be traced back to the late 1800s when ecology was identified as the foundation for scientific plant protection. That history, since the advent of modern organosynthetic pesticides, acquired elements of drama, intrigue, jealousy, and controversy that mark the path of many great scientific or technological achievements. Evolution of IPM followed multiple paths in several countries and reached beyond the confines of entomological sciences. Time and space constraints, however, bias this review toward entomology, among the plant protection sciences, and give it an obvious US slant, despite the global impact of IPM.
1,084 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examine the paradox and show why farmers continue to use pesticides despite the increasing costs and also emphasize the "lock-in" aspects of pesticide use and emphasize the negative externalities from such use.
803 citations
"Pesticide Exposure, Safety Issues, ..." refers background in this paper
...Human exposure to pesticides may occur through occupational exposure in the case of agricultural workers in open fields and greenhouses, workers in the pesticide industry, and exterminators of house pests [6-10,33-35]....
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...Despite their popularity and extensive use, pesticides serious concerns about health risks arising from the exposure of farmers when mixing and applying pesticides or working in treated fields and from residues on food and in drinking water for the general population have been raised [6-10]....
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