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Journal Article•DOI•

Phlebotomine sandflies and the spreading of leishmaniases and other diseases of public health concern

Michele Maroli1, M. D. Feliciangeli2, Laurence Bichaud, Rémi N. Charrel, Luigi Gradoni1 •
Istituto Superiore di Sanità1, University of Carabobo2
01 Jun 2013-Medical and Veterinary Entomology (Med Vet Entomol)-Vol. 27, Iss: 2, pp 123-147
TL;DR: The roles of phlebotomines in the spreading of leishmaniases, sandfly fever, summer meningitis, vesicular stomatitis, Chandipura virus encephalitis and Carrión's disease are reviewed.
Abstract: Phlebotomine sandflies transmit pathogens that affect humans and animals worldwide. We review the roles of phlebotomines in the spreading of leishmaniases, sandfly fever, summer meningitis, vesicular stomatitis, Chandipura virus encephalitis and Carrion's disease. Among over 800 species of sandfly recorded, 98 are proven or suspected vectors of human leishmaniases; these include 42 Phlebotomus species in the Old World and 56 Lutzomyia species in the New World (all: Diptera: Psychodidae). Based on incrimination criteria, we provide an updated list of proven or suspected vector species by endemic country where data are available. Increases in sandfly diffusion and density resulting from increases in breeding sites and blood sources, and the interruption of vector control activities contribute to the spreading of leishmaniasis in the settings of human migration, deforestation, urbanization and conflict. In addition, climatic changes can be expected to affect the density and dispersion of sandflies. Phlebovirus infections and diseases are present in large areas of the Old World, especially in the Mediterranean subregion, in which virus diversity has proven to be higher than initially suspected. Vesiculovirus diseases are important to livestock and humans in the southeastern U.S.A. and Latin America, and represent emerging human threats in parts of India. Carrion's disease, formerly restricted to regions of elevated altitude in Peru, Ecuador and Colombia, has shown recent expansion to non-endemic areas of the Amazon basin.
Citations
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Journal Article•DOI•
A Historical Overview of the Classification, Evolution, and Dispersion of Leishmania Parasites and Sandflies

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Mohammad Akhoundi, Katrin Kuhls1, Arnaud Cannet2, Jan Votýpka3, Pierre Marty2, Pascal Delaunay2, Denis Sereno4 •
Technical University of Applied Sciences Wildau1, University of Nice Sophia Antipolis2, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic3, University of Montpellier4
03 Mar 2016-PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases
TL;DR: An updated view of events that have played important roles in the geographical dispersion of sandflies, in relation to both the Leishmania species they transmit and the animal reservoirs of the parasites is proposed.
Abstract: Background: The aim of this study is to describe the major evolutionary historical events among Leishmania, sandflies, and the associated animal reservoirs in detail, in accordance with the geographical evolution of the Earth, which has not been previously discussed on a large scale. Methodology and Principal Findings Leishmania and sandfly classification has always been a controversial matter, and the increasing number of species currently described further complicates this issue. Despite several hypotheses on the origin, evolution, and distribution of Leishmania and sandflies in the Old and New World, no consistent agreement exists regarding dissemination of the actors that play roles in leishmaniasis. For this purpose, we present here three centuries of research on sandflies and Leishmania descriptions, as well as a complete description of Leishmania and sandfly fossils and the emergence date of each Leishmania and sandfly group during different geographical periods, from 550 million years ago until now. We discuss critically the different approaches that were used for Leishmana and sandfly classification and their synonymies, proposing an updated classification for each species of Leishmania and sandfly. We update information on the current distribution and dispersion of different species of Leishmania (53), sandflies (more than 800 at genus or subgenus level), and animal reservoirs in each of the following geographical ecozones: Palearctic, Nearctic, Neotropic, Afrotropical, Oriental, Malagasy, and Australian. We propose an updated list of the potential and proven sandfly vectors for each Leishmania species in the Old and New World. Finally, we address a classical question about digenetic Leishmania evolution: which was the first host, a vertebrate or an invertebrate? Conclusions and Significance: We propose an updated view of events that have played important roles in the geographical dispersion of sandflies, in relation to both the Leishmania species they transmit and the animal reservoirs of the parasites.

583 citations

Cites background from "Phlebotomine sandflies and the spre..."

  • ...(Gabon [41], Sudan [17], Central African Republic [4,10,39,42], Ethiopia [43], Southern Africa [44].)...

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  • ...(Gabon [41], Sudan [17], Central African Republic [4,10,39,42], Ethiopia [43], Southern Africa [44]....

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Journal Article•DOI•
The history of leishmaniasis

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Dietmar Steverding1•
University of East Anglia1
15 Feb 2017-Parasites & Vectors
TL;DR: Ancient documents and paleoparasitological data indicate that leishmaniasis was already widespread in antiquity, and Identification of Leishmania parasites as etiological agents and sand flies as the transmission vectors of leish maniasis started at the beginning of the 20th century and the discovery of new Leishmanniasis and sand fly species continued well into the 21st century.
Abstract: In this review article the history of leishmaniasis is discussed regarding the origin of the genus Leishmania in the Mesozoic era and its subsequent geographical distribution, initial evidence of the disease in ancient times, first accounts of the infection in the Middle Ages, and the discovery of Leishmania parasites as causative agents of leishmaniasis in modern times. With respect to the origin and dispersal of Leishmania parasites, the three currently debated hypotheses (Palaearctic, Neotropical and supercontinental origin, respectively) are presented. Ancient documents and paleoparasitological data indicate that leishmaniasis was already widespread in antiquity. Identification of Leishmania parasites as etiological agents and sand flies as the transmission vectors of leishmaniasis started at the beginning of the 20th century and the discovery of new Leishmania and sand fly species continued well into the 21st century. Lately, the Syrian civil war and refugee crises have shown that leishmaniasis epidemics can happen any time in conflict areas and neighbouring regions where the disease was previously endemic.

269 citations

Journal Article•DOI•
Canine leishmaniosis in the Old and New Worlds: unveiled similarities and differences

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Filipe Dantas-Torres1, Filipe Dantas-Torres2, Laia Solano-Gallego3, Gad Baneth4, Vitor Márcio Ribeiro5, Milena de Paiva-Cavalcanti1, Domenico Otranto2 •
Oswaldo Cruz Foundation1, University of Bari2, Autonomous University of Barcelona3, Hebrew University of Jerusalem4, Pontifícia Universidade Católica de Minas Gerais5
01 Dec 2012-Trends in Parasitology
TL;DR: The similarities and differences between canine leishmaniosis in the Old and New Worlds are outlined, with emphasis on South America and Europe, and calls the attention of veterinary and public health authorities to standardize and improve practices for diagnosing, treating, and preventing the disease.

168 citations

Journal Article•DOI•
Seasonal Dynamics of Phlebotomine Sand Fly Species Proven Vectors of Mediterranean Leishmaniasis Caused by Leishmania infantum.

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Bulent Alten1, Carla Maia2, Maria Odete Afonso2, Lenea Campino2, Maribel Jiménez3, Estela González3, Ricardo Molina3, Anne-Laure Bañuls4, Jorian Prudhomme4, Baptiste Vergnes4, Céline Toty4, Cécile Cassan4, Nil Rahola4, Magali Thierry4, Denis Sereno4, Gioia Bongiorno5, Riccardo Bianchi5, Cristina Khoury5, Nikolaos Tsirigotakis6, Emmanouil Dokianakis6, Maria Antoniou6, Vasiliki Christodoulou, Apostolos Mazeris, Mehmet Karakuş7, Yusuf Özbel7, Suha K. Arserim8, Ozge Erisoz Kasap1, Filiz Gunay1, Gizem Oguz1, Sinan Kaynas9, Nikoloz Tsertsvadze10, Lamzira Tskhvaradze10, Ekaterina Giorgobiani10, Marina Gramiccia5, Petr Volf11, Luigi Gradoni5 •
Hacettepe University1, Universidade Nova de Lisboa2, Carlos III Health Institute3, Institut de recherche pour le développement4, Istituto Superiore di Sanità5, University of Crete6, Ege University7, RMIT University8, Mehmet Akif Ersoy University9, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention10, Charles University in Prague11
22 Feb 2016-PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases
TL;DR: Despite annual variations, multiple collections performed over consecutive years provided homogeneous patterns of the potential behavior of leishmaniasis vectors in selected sites, which it is proposed may represent sentinel areas for future monitoring.
Abstract: Background The recent geographical expansion of phlebotomine vectors of Leishmania infantum in the Mediterranean subregion has been attributed to ongoing climate changes. At these latitudes, the activity of sand flies is typically seasonal; because seasonal phenomena are also sensitive to general variations in climate, current phenological data sets can provide a baseline for continuing investigations on sand fly population dynamics that may impact on future scenarios of leishmaniasis transmission. With this aim, in 2011–2013 a consortium of partners from eight Mediterranean countries carried out entomological investigations in sites where L. infantum transmission was recently reported. Methods/Principal Findings A common protocol for sand fly collection included monthly captures by CDC light traps, complemented by sticky traps in most of the sites. Collections were replicated for more than one season in order to reduce the effects of local weather events. In each site, the trapping effort was left unchanged throughout the survey to legitimate inter-seasonal comparisons. Data from 99,000 collected specimens were analyzed, resulting in the description of seasonal dynamics of 56,000 sand flies belonging to L. infantum vector species throughout a wide geographical area, namely P. perniciosus (Portugal, Spain and Italy), P. ariasi (France), P. neglectus (Greece), P. tobbi (Cyprus and Turkey), P. balcanicus and P. kandelakii (Georgia). Time of sand fly appearance/disappearance in collections differed between sites, and seasonal densities showed variations in each site. Significant correlations were found between latitude/mean annual temperature of sites and i) the first month of sand fly appearance, that ranged from early April to the first half of June; ii) the type of density trend, varying from a single peak in July/August to multiple peaks increasing in magnitude from May through September. A 3-modal trend, recorded for P. tobbi in Cyprus, represents a novel finding for a L. infantum vector. Adults ended the activity starting from mid September through November, without significant correlation with latitude/mean annual temperature of sites. The period of potential exposure to L.infantum in the Mediterranean subregion, as inferred by adult densities calculated from 3 years, 37 sites and 6 competent vector species, was associated to a regular bell-shaped density curve having a wide peak center encompassing the July-September period, and falling between early May to late October for more than 99% of values. Apparently no risk for leishmaniasis transmission took place from December through March in the years considered. We found a common pattern of nocturnal females activity, whose density peaked between 11 pm and 2 am. Conclusions Despite annual variations, multiple collections performed over consecutive years provided homogeneous patterns of the potential behavior of leishmaniasis vectors in selected sites, which we propose may represent sentinel areas for future monitoring. In the investigated years, higher potential risk for L. infantum transmission in the Mediterranean was identified in the June-October period (97% relative vector density), however such risk was not equally distributed throughout the region, since density waves of adults occurred earlier and were more frequent in southern territories.

156 citations

Cites background from "Phlebotomine sandflies and the spre..."

  • ...Of approximately 900 species estimated to exist [2] less than a hundred, belonging to Phlebotomus and Lutzomyia (sensu Young and Duncan, 1994 [3]) genera are proven or suspected vectors of human disease in the Old and NewWorlds, respectively [4,5]....

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Journal Article•DOI•
Leishmaniasis in the Middle East: Incidence and Epidemiology

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Nasir Salam1, Waleed M. Al-Shaqha1, Arezki Azzi1•
Islamic University1
02 Oct 2014-PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases
TL;DR: The current epidemiological scenario in Iraq, Syria, Saudi Arabia, and Jordan is discussed, emphasizing the number of cases reported, vector species, Leishmania species, and treatment available.
Abstract: Leishmaniasis is a major health problem worldwide, with several countries reporting cases of leishmaniasis resulting in loss of human life or a lifelong stigma because of bodily scars. The Middle East is endemic for cutaneous leishmaniasis, with countries like Syria reporting very high incidence of the disease. Despite several countries establishing national control programs for containing the sandfly vector and treatment of infection, the disease continues to spread. In addition to the endemicity of the region for leishmaniasis, the Middle East has seen a great deal of human migration either for earning of livelihood or due to political upheaval in the region. These factors contribute to the spread and proliferation of the causative species Leishmania and its sandfly host. This review discusses the current epidemiological scenario in Iraq, Syria, Saudi Arabia, and Jordan, emphasizing the number of cases reported, vector species, Leishmania species, and treatment available. The data is primarily from WHO reports for each country and current and old literature.

155 citations

Cites background from "Phlebotomine sandflies and the spre..."

  • ...alexandri, are found in outside environment [17,18]....

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  • ...The eggs are deposited in batches in warm and moist places close to the larval food sources [18,19]....

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References
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Journal Article•DOI•
Leishmaniasis: current situation and new perspectives.

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Philippe Desjeux1•
World Health Organization1
01 Sep 2004-Comparative Immunology Microbiology and Infectious Diseases
TL;DR: Research for leishmaniasis has been more and more focusing on the development of new tools such as diagnostic tests, drugs and vaccines, and the newly available control tools should allow a scaling up of control activities in priority areas.
Abstract: Leishmaniasis represents a complex of diseases with an important clinical and epidemiological diversity. Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) is of higher priority than cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) as it is a fatal disease in the absence of treatment. Anthroponotic VL foci are of special concern as they are at the origin of frequent and deathly epidemics (e.g. Sudan). Leishmaniasis burden remains important: 88 countries, 350 million people at risk, 500,000 new cases of VL per year, 1-1.5 million for CL and DALYs: 2.4 millions. Most of the burden is concentrated on few countries which allows clear geographic priorities. Leishmaniasis is still an important public health problem due to not only environmental risk factors such as massive migrations, urbanisation, deforestation, new irrigation schemes, but also to individual risk factors: HIV, malnutrition, genetic, etc em leader Leishmaniasis is part of those diseases which still requires improved control tools. Consequently WHO/TDR research for leishmaniasis has been more and more focusing on the development of new tools such as diagnostic tests, drugs and vaccines. The ongoing effort has already produced significant results. The newly available control tools should allow a scaling up of control activities in priority areas. In anthroponotic foci, the feasibility of getting a strong impact on mortality, morbidity and transmission, is high.

2,150 citations

"Phlebotomine sandflies and the spre..." refers background in this paper

  • ...transmission cycles are causing an increase in numbers of cases in parts of northern and sub-Saharan Africa and the Middle East (Desjeux, 2004)....

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  • ...Allied forces stationed in the Mediterranean and Middle East reported tens of thousands of cases and attack rates of 3–10% (locally up to 80...

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  • ...The risk for infection with sandfly-transmitted phleboviruses has been shown to pertain to very large areas of the Old World (southern Europe, Africa, the Middle East, central and western Asia) in association with the presence of sandfly vectors (Tesh et al., 1976)....

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  • ...…of zoonotic © 2012 The Authors Medical and Veterinary Entomology © 2012 The Royal Entomological Society, Medical and Veterinary Entomology, 27, 123–147 transmission cycles are causing an increase in numbers of cases in parts of northern and sub-Saharan Africa and the Middle East (Desjeux, 2004)....

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  • ...Furthermore, urbanization and the domestication of zoonotic © 2012 The Authors Medical and Veterinary Entomology © 2012 The Royal Entomological Society, Medical and Veterinary Entomology, 27, 123–147 transmission cycles are causing an increase in numbers of cases in parts of northern and sub-Saharan Africa and the Middle East (Desjeux, 2004)....

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Report•DOI•
Guide to the Identification and Geographic Distribution of Lutzomyia Sand Flies in Mexico, the West Indies, Central and South America (Diptera:Psychodidae)

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David G. Young, Margo A. Duran
31 Mar 1994
TL;DR: Nearly 400 species and subspecies of phlebotomine sand flies in the medically important genus Lutzomyia are identified by taxanomic keys to the adults and by associated illustrations.
Abstract: : Nearly 400 species and subspecies of phlebotomine sand flies in the medically important genus Lutzomyia are identified by taxanomic keys to the adults and by associated illustrations. References to existing and new information on their geographic distribution (with maps), biology, and disease relationships are included. The following 9 new species in the genus are described: caminoi Young and Duncan, christenseni Young and Duncan, clitella Young & Perez, falcata Young, Morales, and Ferro, gibba Young & Arias, nemorosa Young & Perez reinerti Young and Duncan, sinuosa Young & Duncan, and torvid Young, Morales & Ferro. The previously unknown females of moucheti, omagua and pelloni are described. New junior synonyms include spinosa Floch & Abonnenc (=damascenoi Mangabeira) and tikalensis Leon (=permira Fairchild & Hertig). The status of nuneztovari anglesi Le Pont & Desjeux as a subspecie of n. nuneztovari is rejected. The subgenus Xiphomyia of Artemiev 1991 is a junior homonym of Xiphomyia of Alexander 1916. The subspecies name, cruzi of Gonzalez & Garcia- Avila 1981, is a junior homonym of cruzi of Mangabeira 1938. Lutzomyia paulwilliamsi Martins, Falcao & Silva is a junior synonym of Lutzomyia monticola (Costa Lima). Sand flies, Diptera, Psychodidae, LutzoMyia.

1,029 citations

"Phlebotomine sandflies and the spre..." refers background in this paper

  • ...For the Neotropical sandflies, most entomologists still follow the classification of Lewis et al. (1977), later reviewed by Young & Duncan (1994), who recognize the three genera named above, Lutzomyia, Brumptomyia and Warileya, which include 15 subgenera and 11 species groups....

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  • ...Lutzomyia verrucarum appears to be absent from Ecuador and a competent vector is still to be identified (Alexander et al., 1992; Young & Duncan, 1994)....

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Journal Article•DOI•
The increase in risk factors for leishmaniasis worldwide.

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Philippe Desjeux1•
World Health Organization1
01 May 2001-Transactions of The Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene
TL;DR: Increasing risk factors are making leishmaniasis a growing public health concern for many countries around the world, and some are related to a specific eco-epidemiological entity, others affect all forms of leish maniasis.
Abstract: Economic development leads to changing interactions between humans and their physical and biological environment. Worldwide patterns of human settlement in urban areas have led in developing countries to a rapid growth of mega-cities where facilities for housing, drinking-water and sanitation are inadequate, thus creating opportunities for the transmission of communicable diseases such as leishmaniasis. Increasing risk factors are making leishmaniasis a growing public health concern for many countries around the world. Certain risk factors are new, while others previously known are becoming more significant. While some risk factors are related to a specific eco-epidemiological entity, others affect all forms of leishmaniasis. Risk factors are reviewed here entity by entity.

1,016 citations

"Phlebotomine sandflies and the spre..." refers background in this paper

  • ...Massive migration from the high plateau to low tropical areas in the Andean region, intensive deforestation and the establishment of new settlements have greatly contributed to the increase in numbers of cases (Desjeux, 2001; AagaardHansen et al., 2010)....

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  • ...Old World leishmaniases Autochthonous cases of human leishmaniases are currently reported from 80 countries, by contrast with the 66 countries recorded by Desjeux (2001)....

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Journal Article•DOI•
The Relationship between Leishmaniasis and AIDS: the Second 10 Years

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Jorge Alvar1, Pilar Aparicio1, Abraham Aseffa, Margriet den Boer2, Carmen Cañavate3, Jean-Pierre Dedet4, Luigi Gradoni5, Rachel ter Horst2, Rogelio López-Vélez, Javier Moreno6 •
World Health Organization1, Médecins Sans Frontières2, Carlos III Health Institute3, University of Montpellier4, Istituto Superiore di Sanità5, Spanish National Research Council6
01 Apr 2008-Clinical Microbiology Reviews
TL;DR: Based on the previous experience of 20 years of coinfection in Europe, this review focuses on the management of Leishmania-HIV-coinfected patients in low-income countries where leishmaniasis is endemic.
Abstract: Summary: To date, most Leishmania and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) coinfection cases reported to WHO come from Southern Europe. Up to the year 2001, nearly 2,000 cases of coinfection were identified, of which 90% were from Spain, Italy, France, and Portugal. However, these figures are misleading because they do not account for the large proportion of cases in many African and Asian countries that are missed due to a lack of diagnostic facilities and poor reporting systems. Most cases of coinfection in the Americas are reported in Brazil, where the incidence of leishmaniasis has spread in recent years due to overlap with major areas of HIV transmission. In some areas of Africa, the number of coinfection cases has increased dramatically due to social phenomena such as mass migration and wars. In northwest Ethiopia, up to 30% of all visceral leishmaniasis patients are also infected with HIV. In Asia, coinfections are increasingly being reported in India, which also has the highest global burden of leishmaniasis and a high rate of resistance to antimonial drugs. Based on the previous experience of 20 years of coinfection in Europe, this review focuses on the management of Leishmania-HIV-coinfected patients in low-income countries where leishmaniasis is endemic.

776 citations

"Phlebotomine sandflies and the spre..." refers background in this paper

  • ...…immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and the increasing use of immunosuppressive therapies have substantially contributed to an increase in numbers of VL cases from southern Europe to India (Alvar et al., 2008), whereas changes in sandfly populations can be assumed to have no specific role in these events....

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  • ...: + 39 06 4990 2309; Fax: + 39 06 4990 3561; E-mail: luigi.gradoni@iss.it (a) venereal transmission (Symmers, 1960); (b) congenital transmission (Eltoum et al., 1992); (c) infection by blood transfusion (Bruce-Chwatt, 1972), and (d) needle transmission among drug users (Alvar et al., 2008)....

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  • ..., 1992); (c) infection by blood transfusion (Bruce-Chwatt, 1972), and (d) needle transmission among drug users (Alvar et al., 2008)....

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  • ...For instance, epidemics of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and the increasing use of immunosuppressive therapies have substantially contributed to an increase in numbers of VL cases from southern Europe to India (Alvar et al., 2008), whereas changes in sandfly populations can be assumed to have no specific role in these events....

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Journal Article•DOI•
Phlebotomine vectors of the leishmaniases: a review.

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Robert Killick-Kendrick1•
Imperial College London1
01 Jan 1990-Medical and Veterinary Entomology
TL;DR: An account is given of work published during the past 10 years incriminating species of phlebotomine sandflies as vectors of Leishmania species which infect man.
Abstract: An account is given of work published during the past 10 years incriminating species of phlebotomine sandflies as vectors of Leishmania species which infect man. An assessment is made of the degrees of certainty of the vectorial roles of eighty-one species and subspecies of sandflies (thirty-seven Old World and forty-four New World) in the transmission of twenty-nine leishmanial parasites of mammals. At least one species of sandfly is considered to be a proven vector of each of ten parasites. Of the eighty-one sandfly taxa, evidence is judged to be sufficient to incriminate nineteen as proven vectors (eleven Phlebotomus species and eight Lutzomyia species or subspecies) and evidence for a further fourteen (nine Phlebotomus species and five Lutzomyia species or subspecies) is considered to be strong. The suggested criteria for incrimination of a vector are anthropophily and common infection with the same leishmanial parasite as that found in man in the same place. More weight should be given to natural infections persisting after the digestion of a bloodmeal than those in the presence of blood. Supporting evidence is a concordance in the distribution of the fly and the disease in man, proof that the fly feeds regularly on the reservoir host, a flourishing development of the parasite in infected flies and the experimental transmission of the parasite by the bite of the fly.

719 citations

"Phlebotomine sandflies and the spre..." refers background in this paper

  • ...The incrimination of a species as a vector is based on a series of widely accepted criteria (Killick-Kendrick, 1990; WHO, 2010): (a) the vector must feed on humans; (b) in zoonotic entities of leishmaniasis, the vector must also bite the reservoir host(s); (c) the vector must be infected in nature…...

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  • ...The incrimination of a species as a vector is based on a series of widely accepted criteria (Killick-Kendrick, 1990; WHO, 2010): (a) the vector must feed on humans; (b) in zoonotic entities of leishmaniasis, the vector must also bite the reservoir host(s); (c) the vector must be infected in nature with the same Leishmania species as occurs in humans, and this must be ascertained by comparison of isolates using isoenzymes or DNA; (d) the vector must support the complete development of the parasite after the infecting bloodmeal has been digested, and (e) the vector must be able to transmit the parasite by bite to a susceptible host while taking a bloodmeal....

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