Prevalence of infectious diseases in feral cats in Northern Florida.

doi:10.1016/J.JFMS.2003.11.005

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Prevalence of infectious diseases in feral cats in Northern Florida.

Journal Article•DOI•

Prevalence of infectious diseases in feral cats in Northern Florida.

Brian J. Luria¹, Julie Levy¹, Michael R. Lappin², Edward B. Breitschwerdt³, Alfred M. Legendre⁴, Jorge A. Hernandez¹, Shawn P. Gorman¹, Irene T. Lee¹ - Show less +4 more•Institutions (4)

University of Florida¹, Colorado State University², North Carolina State University³, University of Tennessee⁴

01 Oct 2004-Journal of Feline Medicine and Surgery (SAGE Publications)-Vol. 6, Iss: 5, pp 287-296

TL;DR: Feral cats assessed in this study appear to be of no greater risk to human beings or other cats than pet cats, and had similar or lower prevalence rates of infections than those published for pet cats in the United States.

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Abstract: Objectives of this study were to determine prevalence of infection in feral cats in Northern Florida with a select group of infectious organisms and to determine risk factors for infection. Blood samples or sera from 553 cats were tested with a panel of antibody, antigen or PCR assays. Male cats were at higher risk for FIV, Mycoplasma haemofelis, and M. haemominutum. Infection with either FeLV or FIV was associated with increased risk for coinfection with the other retrovirus, M. haemofelis, or M. haemominutum. Bartonella henselae had the highest prevalence and was the only organism that did not have any associated risk for coinfection with other organisms. Feral cats in this study had similar or lower prevalence rates of infections than those published for pet cats in the United States. Thus, feral cats assessed in this study appear to be of no greater risk to human beings or other cats than pet cats.

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Journal Article•DOI•

Factors associated with the rapid emergence of zoonotic Bartonella infections.

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Henri Jean Boulouis¹, Chao Chin Chang², Jennifer B. Henn³, Rickie W. Kasten³, Bruno B Chomel³ - Show less +1 more•Institutions (3)

École nationale vétérinaire d'Alfort¹, National Chung Hsing University², University of California, Davis³

01 May 2005-Veterinary Research

TL;DR: The factors associated with the emergence of these zoonotic pathogens, including better diagnostic tools and methods to identify these fastidious bacteria, host immunosuppression, the interaction of co-infection by several infectious agents that may enhanced the pathogenecity of these bacteria, increased outdoor activity leading to exposure to wildlife reservoirs or vectors, poverty and low income associated with infestation by various ectoparasites, and finally the dispersal of Bartonellae around the world are reviewed.

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Abstract: Within the last 15 years, several bacteria of the genus Bartonella were recognized as zoonotic agents in humans and isolated from various mammalian reservoirs. Based on either isolation of the bacterium or PCR testing, eight Bartonella species or subspecies have been recognized as zoonotic agents, including B. henselae, B. elizabethae, B. grahamii, B. vinsonii subsp. arupensis, B. vinsonii subsp. berkhoffii, B. grahamii, B. washoensis and more recently B. koehlerae. The present manuscript reviews the factors associated with the emergence of these zoonotic pathogens, including better diagnostic tools and methods to identify these fastidious bacteria, host immunosuppression (caused by infectious agents, cancer, aging or induced by immunosuppressive drugs), the interaction of co-infection by several infectious agents that may enhanced the pathogenecity of these bacteria, increased outdoor activity leading to exposure to wildlife reservoirs or vectors, poverty and low income associated with infestation by various ectoparasites, such as body lice and finally the dispersal of Bartonellae around the world. Furthermore, a description of the main epidemiological and clinical features of zoonotic Bartonellae is given. Finally, the main means for diagnosis, treatment and prevention of these diseases are presented.

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364 citations

Journal Article•DOI•

Waterborne toxoplasmosis--recent developments.

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Jeffrey L. Jones¹, Jitender P. Dubey²•Institutions (2)

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention¹, United States Department of Agriculture²

01 Jan 2010-Experimental Parasitology

TL;DR: The present paper examines the possible importance of T. gondii transmission by water in human outbreak linked to contamination of a municipal water reservoir in Canada by wild felids and the widespread infection of marine mammals in the USA.

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344 citations

Additional excerpts

...Cut-off titer Mexico Colima Garcia-Márquez et al. (2007) ELISA 80 28.8 NS Durango Alvarado-Esquivel et al. (2007) MAT 105 21 25 Dubey et al. (2009a) MAT 150 9.3 25 Guadalajara Galván Ramirez et al. (1999) ELISA 24 70.8 NS Mexico City Besné-Mérida et al. (2008) ELISA 169 21.8 NS Pakistan Shahzad et al. (2006) LAT 50 56 16 Panama (Panama City) Frenkel et al. (1995) MAT 241 45.6 1 People’s Republic of China Beijing Yu et al. (2006) ELISA 128 14.1 NS Yu et al. (2008) ELISA OR LAT 335 14.9 NS Guangzhou Chen et al. (2005) ELISA 114 23.7 NS Hebei Yuan et al. (2004) ELISA 75 57.3 NS Hubei Chen (2001) ELISA 105 31.4 NS Shanghai Lu et al. (1997) IHA 142 38.1 64 Shandong Fu et al. (1995) IHA 200 46 64 Guangzhou Dubey et al. (2007a) MAT 34 79.4 20 Guangdong Shen et al. (1990) IHA 47 2.1 64 Poland Śmielewska-Łoś and Pacoń (2002) LAT 200 52.5 64 Michalski and Platt-Samoraj (2004) MAT 17 70.6 20 Portugal (northeastern) Lopes et al. (2008) MAT 204 35.8 20 Puerto Rico (Mona Island) Dubey et al. (2007b) MAT 19 70.3 20 Singapore Chong et al. (1993) LAT 772 30.3 64 Slovak Republic Ondrejka et al. (2007) ELISA 164 18.9 NS Spain Miró et al. (2004) IFA 585 32.3 80 Montoya et al. (2008) IFA 592 26 80 Barcelona Gauss et al. (2003) MAT 220 45 25 Andalusia Millán et al. (2009) MAT 25 502 25 Sweden Uggla et al. (1990) ELISA 244 42 Ljungström et al. (1994) IFA 60 46.6 25 Taiwan Lin et al. (1990) KELA 117 7.7 Tsai et al. (1997) LAT 202 5.5 32 Thailand Sukthana et al. (2003) DT 315 7.3 16 Bangkok Sriwaranard et al. (1981) IHA 40 57.5 256 Jittapalapong et al. (2007) LAT 592 11 64 Turkey Ankara Inci et al. (1996) DT 65 43 16 Özkan et al. (2008) DT 99 40.3 4 Nigde Karatepe et al. (2008) DT 72 76.4 16 USA California Dabritz et al. (2007a) ELISA 194 24.2 64 IFA 194 36.1 16 Miller et al. (2008) IFA 5 60 320 Colorado Hill et al. (2000) ELISA 206 23.6 64 Florida Luria et al. (2004) ELISA 553 10.8 NS Florida, Georgia, Ohio Lappin et al. (1992) ELISA 124 74.2 NS Georgia Lappin et al. (1989) ELISA 188 60.7 NS Hawaii Danner et al. (2007) ELISA 67 37.7 64 Illinois Dubey et al. (1995) MAT 391 68.3 25 Iowa Smith et al. (1992) MAT 74 41.9 32 Hill et al. (1998) MAT 20 80 32 Maryland Witt et al. (1989) IFA 585 15.2 32 Midwestern zoos de Camps et al. (2008) MAT 34 29.4 25 North Carolina Nutter et al. (2004) MAT 176 50.6 25 Ohio Dubey et al. (2002) MAT 275 48 25 Oklahoma Rodgers and Baldwin (1990) LAT 618 22 16 Pennsylvania Dubey et al. (2009b) MAT 210 19.5 25 Rhode Island DeFeo et al. (2002) MAT 200 42 25 Nationwide Vollaire et al. (2005) ELISA 12628 31.6 NS West Indies Grenada Asthana et al. (2006) MAT 40 35 25 Dubey et al. (2009c) MAT 176 28.9 25 St Kitts Moura et al. (2007) MAT 106 84.9 25 Dubey et al. (2009d) MAT 96 73.9 10 DT, dye test; ELISA, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; IFA, indirect fluorescent antibody; IHA, indirect hemagglutination; LAT, latex agglutination test; MAT, modified agglutination test; PCR, polymerase chain reaction; NS, not stated; WB, Western blot....
[...]
...A very high seroprevalence of T. gondii antibodies was found in the bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) from California, Florida, North Carolina and South Carolina, indicating that marine mammals on both coasts of the USA are exposed to T. gondii....
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...…Dabritz et al. (2007a) ELISA 194 24.2 64 IFA 194 36.1 16 Miller et al. (2008) IFA 5 60 320 Colorado Hill et al. (2000) ELISA 206 23.6 64 Florida Luria et al. (2004) ELISA 553 10.8 NS Florida, Georgia, Ohio Lappin et al. (1992) ELISA 124 74.2 NS Georgia Lappin et al. (1989) ELISA 188 60.7…...
[...]
...Cut-off titer Florida Stover et al. (1990) IHA 16 68.7 64 Mid western zoos de Camps et al. (2008) MAT 22 27.3 25 Felis spp. F. concolor Brazil Silva et al. (2001b) MAT 172 48.3 20 (cougar, puma, or Florida panther, mountain lion) Canada Kikuchi et al. (2004) LAT 23 34.8 64 Philippa et al. (2004) ELISA 15 7 NS Central and South America Kikuchi et al. (2004) LAT 83 32.5 64 Mexico Kikuchi et al. (2004) LAT 12 16.7 64 USA Kikuchi et al. (2004) LAT 320 19.1 64 California Paul-Murphy et al. (1994) LAT 36 58 32 Spencer et al. (2003) IFA 42 25.5 50 Miller et al. (2008) IFA 26 92.3 40 Florida Roelke et al. (1993) ELISA 38 9 48 Lappin et al. (1991) ELISA 6 83.3 64 Mid western zoos de Camps et al. (2008) MAT 8 62.5 25 Various areas Spencer et al. (2003) IFA 5 60 50 F. c. vancouverensis Canada Vancouver Island Stephen et al. (1996) IHA 5 100 40 Aramini et al. (1998) MAT 12 92 25 F. chaus (jungle cat) Brazil Silva et al. (2001a) MAT 2 100 20 F. euptilurus (Amur leopard cat) USA Midwestern zoos de Camps et al. (2008) MAT 1 100 25 F. margarita (sand cat) United Arab Emirates Pas and Dubey (2008b) MAT 6 100 25 LAT 4 75 64 F. manul (Otocolobus manul), Pallas cat Austria Basso et al. (2005) MAT 8 100 40 USA Colorado Kenny et al. (2002) LAT 4 100 32 Midwestern zoos de Camps et al. (2008) MAT 5 20 25 Ohio Swanson (1999) ELISA 14 79 NS Oklahoma Ketz-Riley et al. (2003) KELA 6 100 2048 Wisconsin Dubey et al. (1988) MAT 3 67 64 F. lynx USA Alaska Zarnke et al. (2001) MAT 255 15.3 25 F. silvestris (wild cat) UK Yamaguchi et al. (1996) IHA 45 62 16 Spain Sobrino et al. (2007) MAT 6 50 25 F. s. gordoni (Gordon’s cat) United Arab Emirates Pas and Dubey (2008a) MAT 36 86.1 25 F. serval (Leptailurus serval, serval) Brazil Silva et al. (2001a) MAT 2 100 20 USA Florida Lappin et al. (1991) ELISA 2 50 64 Various areas Spencer et al. (2003) IFA 3 33.3 50 F. temmincki (asian golden cat, golden cat) Thailand Thiangtum et al. (2006) LAT 8 12.5 64 F. viverrinus (fishing cat) USA – Mid western zoos de Camps et al. (2008) MAT 4 25 25 Thailand Thiangtum et al. (2006) LAT 27 22.2 64 Oncifelis spp. O. geoffroyi (Geoffroy’s cat) Bolivia Chaco Fiorello et al. (2006) ELISA 8 25 NS Brazil Silva et al. (2001b) MAT 12 75 20 O. colocolo (Pampas cat) Brazil Silva et al. (2001b) MAT 8 12.5 20 Leopardus spp. Bolivian Chaco Fiorello et al. (2006) ELISA 10 100 NS L. pardalis (ocelot) Brazil Silva et al. (2001b) MAT 168 57.7 20 USA – Alabama Spencer et al. (2003) IFA 1 100 50 L. tigrinus (oncilla) Brazil Silva et al. (2001b) MAT 131 51.9 20 L. wiedii (margay) Brazil Silva et al. (2001b) MAT 63 55.5 20 Neofelis nebulosa (clouded leopard) USA – California Spencer et al. (2003) IFA 2 50 50 Mid western zoos de Camps et al. (2008) MAT 7 14.3 25 Thailand Thiangtum et al. (2006) LAT 16 12.5 64 Herpailurus yogouaroundi (jaguarundi) Brazil Silva et al. (2001b) MAT 99 45.9 20 USA – Florida Lappin et al. (1991) ELISA 1 100 64 DT, dye test; ELISA, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; IFA, indirect fluorescent antibody; IHA, indirect hemagglutination; LAT, latex agglutination test; MAT, modified agglutination test; NS, not stated. et al., 1997)....
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Journal Article•DOI•

Transmission of Toxoplasma: Clues from the study of sea otters as sentinels of Toxoplasma gondii flow into the marine environment *

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Patricia A. Conrad¹, Melissa A. Miller², C. Kreuder¹, Erick R. James³, Jonna A. K. Mazet¹, Haydee A. Dabritz¹, D.A Jessup², Frances M. D. Gulland⁴, Michael E. Grigg³ - Show less +5 more•Institutions (4)

University of California, Davis¹, California Department of Fish and Wildlife², University of British Columbia³, The Marine Mammal Center⁴

01 Oct 2005-International Journal for Parasitology

TL;DR: Investigation into the processes promoting T. gondii infections in sea otters will provide a better understanding of terrestrial parasite flow and the emergence of disease at the interface between wildlife, domestic animals and humans.

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297 citations

Cites background from "Prevalence of infectious diseases i..."

...Seven RAPD primers have previously been applied against T. gondii isolates with varying degrees of success (Guo et al., 1997; Ferreira et al., 2004)....
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...…et al. (2002) :25 116 vet clinic, 84 shelter DeFeo et al. (2002) :64 Clinically ill, veterinary teaching hospital Vollaire et al. (2005) :64 Feral Luria et al. (2004) :25 76 owned, 100 feral Nutter et al. (2004) ps of cats in the study. dye test (DT), indirect fluorescent antibody test…...
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...In addition to being a notable tourist attraction and icon of coastal California, these charismatic marine mammals serve several important ecological roles. ut-offb Source of cats Reference :16 Rural, collected for College of Medicine Animal Facility McCulloch et al. (1964) :32 Colony—18 from Central Valley, 14 from SFO Bay Soave (1968) :16 Not reported McKinney (1973) :2 510 owned (MO), 157 stray (MO/IA) Dubey (1973) :32d Not reported Marchiondo et al. (1976) :16 Shelter Claus et al. (1977) :2 32 owned, 7 ferale Teutsch et al. (1979) :4 87 shelter Ladiges et al. (1982) :32 600 shelter, 36 vet clinic, 14 trapped strays Childs and Seegar (1986) Witt et al. (1989) :64 81 healthy, 107 ill; veterin- ary teaching hospital Lappin et al. (1989c) :16 Owned cats Rodgers and Baldwin (1990) :32 Swine farms Smith et al. (1992) :64 Veterinary teaching hospital cats with uveitisg Lappin et al. (1992) :25 Swine farms Dubey et al. (1995) :32 Trapped, free-ranging Hill et al. (1998) :64 129 owned, 77 shelterh Hill et al. (2000) :25 197 owned, 78 feral Dubey et al. (2002) :25 116 vet clinic, 84 shelter DeFeo et al. (2002) :64 Clinically ill, veterinary teaching hospital Vollaire et al. (2005) :64 Feral Luria et al. (2004) :25 76 owned, 100 feral Nutter et al. (2004) ps of cats in the study. dye test (DT), indirect fluorescent antibody test (IFAT), enzyme-linked test (MAT) used in serosurvey....
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Journal Article•DOI•

Going Wild: Lessons from Naturally Occurring T-Lymphotropic Lentiviruses

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Sue VandeWoude¹, Cristian Apetrei²•Institutions (2)

Colorado State University¹, Tulane University²

01 Oct 2006-Clinical Microbiology Reviews

TL;DR: A comparison of consistent patterns in lentivirus biology will expose new directions for scientific inquiry for understanding the basis for virulence versus avirulence and for host-lentiviral adaptation which are relevant to human HIV/AIDS infection.

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Abstract: Over 40 nonhuman primate (NHP) species harbor species-specific simian immunodeficiency viruses (SIVs). Similarly, more than 20 species of nondomestic felids and African hyenids demonstrate seroreactivity against feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) antigens. While it has been challenging to study the biological implications of nonfatal infections in natural populations, epidemiologic and clinical studies performed thus far have only rarely detected increased morbidity or impaired fecundity/survival of naturally infected SIV- or FIV-seropositive versus -seronegative animals. Cross-species transmissions of these agents are rare in nature but have been used to develop experimental systems to evaluate mechanisms of pathogenicity and to develop animal models of HIV/AIDS. Given that felids and primates are substantially evolutionarily removed yet demonstrate the same pattern of apparently nonpathogenic lentiviral infections, comparison of the biological behaviors of these viruses can yield important implications for host-lentiviral adaptation which are relevant to human HIV/AIDS infection. This review therefore evaluates similarities in epidemiology, lentiviral genotyping, pathogenicity, host immune responses, and cross-species transmission of FIVs and factors associated with the establishment of lentiviral infections in new species. This comparison of consistent patterns in lentivirus biology will expose new directions for scientific inquiry for understanding the basis for virulence versus avirulence.

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262 citations

Cites background from "Prevalence of infectious diseases i..."

...The seroprevalence of domestic cat FIV varies between 1 and 15%, with significantly higher incidences occurring in certain demographics, such as feral animals, those presenting as clinically ill, or intact males allowed to roam outdoors (59, 101, 216, 226, 234, 241, 305, 360, 376, 403)....
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...Feral cats, animals with outdoor access, and animals presented for undiagnosed illness are more likely to be infected than are indoor neutered house cats (32, 234, 265)....
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...FIV seroprevalence rates for domestic cats, lions, and pumas increase as animals reach sexual maturity, suggesting that horizontal transmission is by far the most prevalent mode of transmission (32, 41, 58, 234, 376)....
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Journal Article•DOI•

Cats and Toxoplasma: implications for public health.

[...]

Haydee A. Dabritz¹, Patricia A. Conrad²•Institutions (2)

California Department of Public Health¹, University of California, Davis²

01 Feb 2010-Zoonoses and Public Health

TL;DR: Prevention efforts should focus on educating cat owners about the importance of collecting cat faeces in litter boxes, spaying owned cats to reduce overpopulation, reducing the numbers of feral cats and promoting rigorous hand hygiene after gardening or soil contact.

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Abstract: Cats are popular as pets worldwide because they are easy to care for and provide companionship that enriches the lives of human beings. Little attention has been focused on their potential to contaminate the environment with zoonotic pathogens. One such pathogen, the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii, rarely causes clinical manifestations in cats or immunocompetent humans; however, it can have serious adverse effects on human foetuses and immunocompromised patients. Many human infections are believed to be acquired from eating undercooked or raw meat, such as pork and lamb (Tenter et al. Int. J. Parasitol., 30, 2000, 1217; Dubey et al. J. Parasitol. 91, 2005, 1082). However, the prevalence of T. gondii infection in human populations that do not consume meat or eat it well-cooked suggests that the acquisition of infection from the environment, via oocysts in soil, water or on uncooked vegetables, is also important (Rawal. Trans. Royal Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg., 53, 1959, 61; Roghmann et al. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg., 60, 1999, 790; Chacin-Bonilla et al. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg., 65, 2001, 131). In the past 20 years, two changes occurred that significantly increased the size of the cat population in the USA. Pet cat ownership grew from 50 million to 90 million animals, and animal welfare activists created feeding stations for abandoned and free-roaming cats. As many cat owners allow their cats to deposit faeces outside and cats maintained in colonies always defecate outside, ample opportunity exists for T. gondii oocysts to enter the environment and be transmitted to humans. Prevention efforts should focus on educating cat owners about the importance of collecting cat faeces in litter boxes, spaying owned cats to reduce overpopulation, reducing the numbers of feral cats and promoting rigorous hand hygiene after gardening or soil contact.

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249 citations

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Journal Article•DOI•

Reorganization of genera in the families Rickettsiaceae and Anaplasmataceae in the order Rickettsiales: unification of some species of Ehrlichia with Anaplasma, Cowdria with Ehrlichia and Ehrlichia with Neorickettsia, descriptions of six new species combinations and designation of Ehrlichia equi and 'HGE agent' as subjective synonyms of Ehrlichia phagocytophila.

[...]

J. S. Dumler, Anthony F. Barbet¹, C. P.J. Bekker¹, G. A. Dasch¹, G. H. Palmer¹, Stuart C. Ray, Y. Rikihisa¹, F. R. Rurangirwa¹ - Show less +4 more•Institutions (1)

Johns Hopkins University¹

01 Nov 2001-International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology

TL;DR: It is proposed that all members of the tribes Ehrlichieae and Wolbachieae be transferred to the family Anaplasmataceae and that the tribe structure of the family Rickettsiaceae be eliminated.

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Abstract: The genera Anaplasma, Ehrlichia, Cowdria, Neorickettsia and Wolbachia encompass a group of obligate intracellular bacteria that reside in vacuoles of eukaryotic cells and were previously placed in taxa based upon morphological, ecological, epidemiological and clinical characteristics. Recent genetic analyses of 16S rRNA genes, groESL and surface protein genes have indicated that the existing taxa designations are flawed. All 16S rRNA gene and groESL sequences deposited in GenBank prior to 2000 and selected sequences deposited thereafter were aligned and phylogenetic trees and bootstrap values were calculated using the neighbour-joining method and compared with trees generated with maximum-probability, maximum-likelihood, majority-rule consensus and parsimony methods. Supported by bootstrap probabilities of at least 54%, 16S rRNA gene comparisons consistently clustered to yield four distinct clades characterized roughly as Anaplasma (including the Ehrlichia phagocytophila group, Ehrlichia platys and Ehrlichia bovis) with a minimum of 96.1% similarity, Ehrlichia (including Cowdria ruminantium) with a minimum of 97.7% similarity, Wolbachia with a minimum of 95.6% similarity and Neorickettsia (including Ehrlichia sennetsu and Ehrlichia risticii) with a minimum of 94.9% similarity. Maximum similarity between clades ranged from 87.1 to 94.9%. Insufficient differences existed among E. phagocytophila, Ehrlichia equi and the human granulocytic ehrlichiosis (HGE) agent to support separate species designations, and this group was at least 98.2% similar to any Anaplasma species. These 16S rRNA gene analyses are strongly supported by similar groESL clades, as well as biological and antigenic characteristics. It is proposed that all members of the tribes Ehrlichieae and Wolbachieae be transferred to the family Anaplasmataceae and that the tribe structure of the family Rickettsiaceae be eliminated. The genus Anaplasma should be emended to include Anaplasma (Ehrlichia) phagocytophila comb. nov. (which also encompasses the former E. equi and the HGE agent), Anaplasma (Ehrlichia) bovis comb. nov. and Anaplasma (Ehrlichia) platys comb. nov., the genus Ehrlichia should be emended to include Ehrlichia (Cowdria) ruminantium comb. nov. and the genus Neorickettsia should be emended to include Neorickettsia (Ehrlichia) risticii comb. nov. and Neorickettsia (Ehrlichia) sennetsu comb. nov.

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1,911 citations

"Prevalence of infectious diseases i..." refers background in this paper

...Experimentally, cats have been infected with Neorickettsia risticii ( previously E. risticii) and A. phagocytophilum ( previously E. equi) (Dawson et al., 1988; Dumler et al., 2001; Lewis et al., 1975; Neer et al., 2002)....
[...]

Journal Article•DOI•

Toxoplasma gondii infection in the United States: seroprevalence and risk factors.

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Jeffrey L. Jones¹, Deanna Kruszon-Moran, Marianna Wilson, Geraldine M. McQuillan, Thomas R. Navin, James B. McAuley - Show less +2 more•Institutions (1)

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention¹

15 Aug 2001-American Journal of Epidemiology

TL;DR: Risk for T. gondii infection increased with age and was higher among persons who were foreign-born, persons with a lower educational level, those who lived in crowded conditions, and those who worked in soil-related occupations, although in subset analyses risk categories varied by race/ethnicity.

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Abstract: Infection with Toxoplasma gondii can cause severe illness when the organism is contracted congenitally or when it is reactivated in immune-suppressed persons. To determine the prevalence of T. gondii infection in a representative sample of the US population, the authors tested sera from participants in the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (1988-1994) for immunoglobulin G antibodies to T. gondii. Of 27,145 persons aged > or =12 years, 17,658 (65%) had sera tested. The overall age-adjusted seroprevalence was 22.5% (95% confidence interval (CI): 21.1, 23.9); among women aged 15-44 years, seroprevalence was 15.0% (95% CI: 13.2, 17.0). Age-adjusted seroprevalence was higher in the Northeast (29.2%) than in the South (22.8%), Midwest (20.5%), or West (17.5%) (p < 0.05). In multivariate analysis, risk for T. gondii infection increased with age and was higher among persons who were foreign-born, persons with a lower educational level, those who lived in crowded conditions, and those who worked in soil-related occupations, although in subset analyses risk categories varied by race/ethnicity. Nearly one quarter of adults and adolescents in the United States have been infected with T. gondii. Most women of childbearing age in the United States are susceptible to acute infection and should be educated about ways to minimize exposure to T. gondii.

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657 citations

"Prevalence of infectious diseases i..." refers background in this paper

...Approximately 30% of pet cats and 22% of humans in the United States have T. gondii antibodies (Dubey, 1973; Hill et al., 2000; Jones et al., 2001)....
[...]
...gondii is of particular risk to pregnant women, with up to 50% of infections during pregnancy transmitted to the fetus (Jones et al., 2001)....
[...]
...In humans, T. gondii is of particular risk to pregnant women, with up to 50% of infections during pregnancy transmitted to the fetus (Jones et al., 2001)....
[...]
...Serologic prevalence data indicate that toxoplasmosis is one of the most common infections of cats and humans throughout the world (Dubey, 1973; Dubey et al., 2002; Hill et al., 2000; Jones et al., 2001)....
[...]

Journal Article•DOI•

Experimental transmission of Bartonella henselae by the cat flea.

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Bruno B Chomel¹, Rickie W. Kasten¹, Kim A. Floyd-Hawkins¹, B Chi¹, Kazuhiro Yamamoto¹, J Roberts-Wilson¹, A N Gurfield¹, R. C. Abbott¹, Niels C Pedersen¹, Jane E. Koehler¹ - Show less +6 more•Institutions (1)

University of California, Davis¹

01 Aug 1996-Journal of Clinical Microbiology

TL;DR: Data demonstrate that the cat flea readily transmits B. henselae to cats, and control of feline infestation with this arthropod vector may provide an important strategy for the prevention of infection of both humans and cats.

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Abstract: Bartonella henselae is an emerging bacterial pathogen, causing cat scratch disease and bacillary angiomatosis. Cats bacteremic with B. henselae constitute a large reservoir from which humans become infected. Prevention of human infection depends on elucidation of the natural history and means of feline infection. We studied 47 cattery cats in a private home for 12 months to determine the longitudinal prevalence of B. henselae bacteremia, the prevalence of B. henselae in the fleas infesting these cats, and whether B. henselae is transmitted experimentally to cats via fleas. Vector-mediated transmission of B.henselae isolates was evaluated by removing fleas from the naturally bacteremic, flea-infested cattery cats and transferring these fleas to specific-pathogen-free (SPF) kittens housed in a controlled, arthropod-free University Animal Facility. B. henselae bacteremia was detected in 89% of the 47 naturally infected cattery cats. A total of 132 fleas were removed from cats whose blood was simultaneously cultured during different seasons and were tested individually for the presence of B. henselae DNA by PCR. B. henselae DNA was detected in 34% of 132 fleas, with seasonal variation, but without an association between the presence or the level of bacteremia in the corresponding cat. Cat fleas removed from bacteremic cattery cats transmitted B. henselae to five SPF kittens in two separate experiments; however, control SPF kittens housed with highly bacteremic kittens in the absence of fleas did not become infected. These data demonstrate that the cat flea readily transmits B. henselae to cats. Control of feline infestation with this arthropod vector may provide an important strategy for the prevention of infection of both humans and cats.

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555 citations

"Prevalence of infectious diseases i..." refers background in this paper

...The cat flea, C. felis, is the primary vector of Bartonella spp. between cats (Chomel et al., 1996)....
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Journal Article•DOI•

Cat Scratch Disease in Connecticut -- Epidemiology, Risk Factors, and Evaluation of a New Diagnostic Test

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Kenneth M. Zangwill¹, Douglas H. Hamilton, Bradley A. Perkins, Russell L. Regnery, Brian D. Plikaytis, James L. Hadler, Matthew L. Cartter, Jay D. Wenger - Show less +4 more•Institutions (1)

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention¹

01 Jul 1993-The New England Journal of Medicine

TL;DR: Cat scratch disease is strongly associated with owning a kitten, and fleas may be involved in its transmission, so the serologic test for rochalimaea may be useful diagnostically and suggest an etiologic role for this genus.

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Abstract: Background Although cat scratch disease is commonly diagnosed in patients who have unexplained regional lymphadenopathy after encounters with cats, its epidemiology and the risk factors for disease are not clearly defined, and there is no generally accepted diagnostic test. Methods We conducted a physician survey to identify cases of cat scratch disease occurring over a 13-month period in cat owners in Connecticut. We interviewed both the patients (or their parents) and controls matched for age who owned cats. Serum from the patients was tested for antibodies to Rochalimaea henselae with a new, indirect fluorescent-antibody test. Results We identified 60 patients with cat scratch disease and 56 age-matched, cat-owning control subjects. Patients were more likely than controls to have at least one pet kitten 12 months old or younger (odds ratio, 15), to have been scratched or bitten by a kitten (odds ratio, 27), and to have had at least one kitten with fleas (odds ratio, 29). A conditional logistic-regressi...

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471 citations

"Prevalence of infectious diseases i..." refers background in this paper

...Exposure to kittens with fleas is the highest risk factor for CSD in humans as well (Zangwill et al., 1993)....
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Journal Article•DOI•

Bartonella Infection in Animals: Carriership, Reservoir Potential, Pathogenicity, and Zoonotic Potential for Human Infection

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Edward B. Breitschwerdt¹, Dorsey L. Kordick¹•Institutions (1)

North Carolina State University¹

01 Jul 2000-Clinical Microbiology Reviews

TL;DR: Considering the extensive animal reservoirs and the large number of insects that have been implicated in the transmission of Bartonella spp.

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Abstract: Recent observations have begun to support a role for Bartonella spp. as animal as well as human pathogens. Bartonella spp. are vector-transmitted, blood-borne, intracellular, gram-negative bacteria that can induce prolonged infection in the host. Persistent infections in domestic and wild animals result in a substantial reservoir of Bartonella organisms in nature that can serve as a source for inadvertent human infection. The prevalence of bacteremia can range from 50 to 95% in selected rodent, cat, deer, and cattle populations. Dogs infected with Bartonella spp. can develop lameness, endocarditis, granulomatous lymphadenitis, and peliosis hepatis, lesions that have also been reported in association with human infection. Understanding the role of Bartonella spp. as pathogens in cats and other wild or domestic animals awaits the results of additional studies. Considering the extensive animal reservoirs and the large number of insects that have been implicated in the transmission of Bartonella spp., both animal and human exposure to these organisms may be more substantial than is currently believed.

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428 citations

"Prevalence of infectious diseases i..." refers background in this paper

...The pathogenicity of B. henselae in cats remains undetermined, however, most infected cats appear healthy (Breitschwerdt and Kordick, 2000)....
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...henselae in cats remains undetermined, however, most infected cats appear healthy (Breitschwerdt and Kordick, 2000)....
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