Probability of shock in the presence and absence of CS in fear conditioning.
01 Aug 1968-Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology (J Comp Physiol Psychol)-Vol. 66, Iss: 1, pp 1-5
TL;DR: 2 experiments indicate that CS-US contingency is an important determinant of fear conditioning and that presentation of US in the absence of CS interferes with fear conditioning.
Abstract: 2 experiments indicate that CS-US contingency is an important determinant of fear conditioning and that presentation of US in the absence of CS interferes with fear conditioning. In Experiment 1, equal probability of a shock US in the presence and absence of a tone CS produced no CER suppression to CS; the same probability of US given only during CS produced substantial conditioning. In Experiment 2, which explored 4 different probabilities of US in the presence and absence of CS, amount of conditioning was higher the greater the probability of US during CS and was lower the greater the probability of US in the absence of CS; when the 2 probabilities were equal, no conditioning resulted. Two conceptions of Pavlovian conditioning have been distinguished by Rescorla (1967). The first, and more traditional, notion emphasizes the role of the number of pairings of CS and US in the formation of a CR. The second notion suggests that it is the contingency between CS and US which is important. The notion of contingency differs from that of pairing in that it includes not only what events are paired but also what events are not paired. As used here, contingency refers to the relative probability of occurrence of US in the presence of CS as contrasted with its probability in the absence of CS. The contingency notion suggests that, in fact, conditioning only occurs when these probabilities differ; when the probability of US is higher during CS than at other times, excitatory conditioning occurs; when the probability is lower, inhibitory conditioning results. Notice that the probability of a US can be the same in the absence and presence of CS and yet there can be a fair number of CS-US pairings. It is this that makes it possible to assess the relative importance of pairing and contingency in the development of a CR. Several experiments have pointed to the usefulness of the contingency notion. Rescorla (1966) reported a Pavlovian 1This research was supported by Grants MH13415-01 from the National Institute of Mental Health and GB-6493 from the National Science Foundation, as well as by funds from Yale University.
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TL;DR: Results from a real-time, computer-simulated, three-dimensional environment modelled on a kite-shaped maze used to study the shortcut ability of hamsters suggest a limitation on an analysis of spatial location learning based only on exposure to configurations of landmarks.
Abstract: Participants explored a real-time, computer-simulated, three-dimensional environment modelled on a kite-shaped maze used to study the shortcut ability of hamsters by Chapuis, Durup, and Thinus-Blanc (1987). They were then asked to take the shortest routes between selected locations. The results were similar to those of Chapuis et al., showing that in humans also, exploration of two parallel outer paths that connected four target locations (e.g., A-B, and C-D) was not sufficient to support later shortcut performance between locations A and D; successful shortcut performance required exploratory experience of a connecting path between the explored sub-spaces (B-C). These results add to the evidence suggesting similarities in the spatial knowledge acquired by humans and animals, and suggest a limitation on an analysis of spatial location learning based only on exposure to configurations of landmarks.
11 citations
Cites background from "Probability of shock in the presenc..."
...These experiments are analogous to associative learning experiments in which the presence of a cue or set of cues that predict an outcome can block (Kamin, 1969) or overshadow (Rescorla, 1968) learning about another cue or set of cues that also predict that outcome....
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TL;DR: The Rescorla-Wagner model has introduced an unnecessary confusion between memory and prediction within the field of learning, which needs to be acknowledged so that the concepts of associations and predictions can again be differentiated.
11 citations
Cites background from "Probability of shock in the presenc..."
...Rescorla (1968) demonstrated that conditioning was not only a function of the probability of the US in presence of the CS but also of the probability of the US in the absence of the CS (the contingency effect)....
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01 Jan 1989
TL;DR: This chapter illustrates a simple circuit model for higher-order features of classical conditioning in Aplysia, a simple reflex that can be modified by two forms of nonassociative learning—habituation and sensitization and associative learning, which is classical conditioning.
Abstract: Publisher Summary This chapter illustrates a simple circuit model for higher-order features of classical conditioning in Aplysia. Studies of learning in Aplysia have focused on the defensive withdrawal reflexes of the external organs of the mantle cavity. This reflex is analogous to vertebrate defensive escape and withdrawal responses, which can be modified by experience. Unlike vertebrate withdrawal reflexes, the Aplysia withdrawal reflex is partly monosynaptic—siphon sensory neurons synapse directly on gill and siphon motor neurons. This simple reflex can be modified by two forms of nonassociative learning—habituation and sensitization—as well as by a form of associative learning, which is classical conditioning. In habituation, an animal learns to ignore a weak stimulus that is repeatedly presented when the consequences of the stimulus are neither noxious nor rewarding. Thus, an Aplysia will initially respond to a tactile stimulus to the siphon by briskly withdrawing its gill and siphon. However, with repeated exposure to the stimulus, the Aplysia will exhibit reflex responses that are reduced to a fraction of their initial value.
11 citations
TL;DR: Little evidence emerged to support the notion of a PBCU response pattern which resembles that observed in pediatric intensive care units (i.e., ICU syndrome), but positive responses indicative of patient well-being were found to be associated with environmental engagement and the presence of other patients.
Abstract: Behavioral observations were conducted on 40 children admitted consecutively to an inpatient pediatric burn care unit (PBCU) over a 6-month period. Children's responses to the PBCU environment as well as adult responses to patients were assessed. Data indicated that children most frequently (a) were oriented and alert, (b) emitted vocalizations or verbalizations, (c) were environmentally engaged, (d) and demonstrated positive or neutral affective responding. Adult-child interactions occurred during the majority of observations. Age was found to be significantly related to the type of distress response exhibited. Positive responses indicative of patient well-being were found to be associated with environmental engagement and the presence of other patients. In general, little evidence emerged to support the notion of a PBCU response pattern which resembles that observed in pediatric intensive care units (i.e., ICU syndrome). The use of observational methods for studying the behavioral adaptation of children in medical settings and the implications of the data for the design of interventions on PBCUs are discussed.
11 citations
References
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TL;DR: This "truly random" control procedure leads to a new conception of Pavlovian conditioning postulating that the contingency between CS and US, rather than the pairing of CS andUS, is the important event in conditioning.
Abstract: The traditional control procedures for Pavlovian conditioning are examined and each is found wanting. Some procedures introduce nonassociative factors not present in the experimental procedure while others transform the excitatory, experimental CS-US contingency into an inhibitory contingency. An alternative control procedure is suggested in which there is no contingency whatsoever between CS and US. This \"truly random\" control procedure leads to a new conception of Pavlovian conditioning postulating that the contingency between CS and US, rather than the pairing of CS and US, is the important event in conditioning. The fruitfulness of this new conception of Pavlovian conditioning is illustrated by 2 experimental results.
1,328 citations
301 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, three groups of dogs were trained with different kinds of Pavlovian fear conditioning for three different types of dogs: randomly and independently; for a second group, CSs predicted the occurrence of USs; and for a third group, S predicted the absence of the USs.
Abstract: Three groups of dogs were Sidman avoidance trained They then received different kinds of Pavlovian fear conditioning For one group CSs and USs occurred randomly and independently; for a second group, CSs predicted the occurrence of USs; for a third group, CSs predicted the absence of the USs The CSs were subsequently presented while S performed the avoidance response CSs which had predicted the occurrence or the absence of USs produced, respectively, increases and decreases in avoidance rate For the group with random CSs and USs in conditioning, the CS had no effect upon avoidance
160 citations
64 citations
TL;DR: Rats in an experimental group were given 30 trials of differential CER and then the CS+ and CS− were combined during CER extinction, resulting in less suppression for the experimental group than shown by a control group, interpreted as a demonstration of the active inhibitory properties of CS−.
Abstract: Rats in an experimental group were given 30 trials of differential CER and then the CS+ and CS− were combined during CER extinction. The combination resulted in less suppression for the experimental group than shown by a control group which had a CS+ and a formerly random stimulus combined during extinction. This was interpreted as a demonstration of the active inhibitory properties of CS−.
44 citations
"Probability of shock in the presenc..." refers background in this paper
...Although such an account is plausible for the present data, it fails to explain the active inhibition of fear found by Rescorla and LoLordo (1965), Rescorla (1966), and Hammond (1967)....
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