Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made
TL;DR: By identifying and synthesizing dispersed data on production, use, and end-of-life management of polymer resins, synthetic fibers, and additives, this work presents the first global analysis of all mass-produced plastics ever manufactured.
Abstract: Plastics have outgrown most man-made materials and have long been under environmental scrutiny. However, robust global information, particularly about their end-of-life fate, is lacking. By identifying and synthesizing dispersed data on production, use, and end-of-life management of polymer resins, synthetic fibers, and additives, we present the first global analysis of all mass-produced plastics ever manufactured. We estimate that 8300 million metric tons (Mt) as of virgin plastics have been produced to date. As of 2015, approximately 6300 Mt of plastic waste had been generated, around 9% of which had been recycled, 12% was incinerated, and 79% was accumulated in landfills or the natural environment. If current production and waste management trends continue, roughly 12,000 Mt of plastic waste will be in landfills or in the natural environment by 2050.
Citations
More filters
TL;DR: In this article, a two-rotating disks-type tribo-aero-electrostatic separator for finely grinded matter (i.e., granule diameter < 1mm) is presented.
Abstract: Electrostatic separation of granular plastics mixtures has become a well-established technology, with industrial applications in the area of waste electric and electronic equipment recycling. The aim of this study was to pave the way to industrial application of a new two-rotating disks-type tribo-aero-electrostatic separator for finely grinded matter (i.e., granule diameter <1 mm), by clarifying three major issues: 1) continuous operation of the equipment; 2) efficient processing of particulate mixtures composed of various proportions of two plastics; and 3) rapid evaluation of the purity of the recovered products. The experiments were carried out on a binary mixture composed of different proportions of polypropylene and polycarbonate, particles of size 250 to 500 μm. A measurement system was setup to enable the continuous and simultaneous recording of the charges and masses of the separated products. The purity of the products was evaluated using a colorimetric system. It was, thus, possible to quantify the performances of the separator under various conditions that simulated industrial operation situations.
6 citations
Cites background from "Production, use, and fate of all pl..."
...EVERY year larger quantities of plastics wastes are generated [1]–[4]....
[...]
...of plastic waste had been generated, around 9% of which had been recycled, 12% was incinerated, and 79% was accumulated in landfills or the natural environment [1]....
[...]
TL;DR: In this article , the authors investigated the formation mechanism of C-Cl functional groups in a co-pyrolyzed coconut shell activated carbon (AC) with polyvinyl chloride (PVC) to prepare a Cl-loading activated carbon.
6 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the atmospheric microplastics (MPs) in indoor environment have attracted great attention in recent years, and the authors selected five indoor study cases with students of different as the research objects, including kindergartens, primary schools, middle schools, high schools and university.
6 citations
TL;DR: The strain OK12 isolated from plastic bag debris collected from a beach in Japan belonged to the genus Nocardioides, a marine species, and formed biofilms on the P(3HB) and polypropylene film surfaces, which may have helped the strain to degrade P( 3HB).
6 citations
TL;DR: In this article , the authors employed enzymatically polymerized microcrystalline glucan (MCG) as a functional additive in natural rubber (NR)-based coating formulations.
Abstract: The demand for paper-based packaging solutions as an alternative to incumbent single-use petroleum-based polymers for food packaging applications is ever-increasing. Paper-based packaging enables direct options for recycling and, in the case of inadvertent leakage, avoids the formation of microplastics through natural biodegradation. However, typical paper-based formats do not offer sufficient barrier performance which meets these sustainability objectives. Replacement of the plastic film with paper formats will reduce product shelf-stability and increase food wastage from farm to table. This work employed enzymatically polymerized microcrystalline glucan (MCG) as a functional additive in natural rubber (NR)-based coating formulations. Typically, NR coating formulations containing 0–50 wt % MCG were fabricated at a constant coating thickness with a constant solid content. The influence of the MCG on the wet and dry strength, rheology, adhesion strength, and barrier properties such as moisture, oxygen, and grease barrier of the formulated coatings was investigated. Also, further study on the effect of solid content and light crosslinking on the barrier properties was conducted. The optimized NR/MCG coating displayed promising mechanical properties as well as oxygen and oil barrier properties. Furthermore, light crosslinking of the NR/MCG coating enhances the barrier properties of the paper coating. Overall, the formulated NR/MCG paper coatings exhibited excellent wet strength in conjuncture with outstanding barrier properties, indicating their potential as a sustainable alternative in the food packaging industry.
6 citations
References
More filters
TL;DR: This work combines available data on solid waste with a model that uses population density and economic status to estimate the amount of land-based plastic waste entering the ocean, which is estimated to be 275 million metric tons.
Abstract: Plastic debris in the marine environment is widely documented, but the quantity of plastic entering the ocean from waste generated on land is unknown. By linking worldwide data on solid waste, population density, and economic status, we estimated the mass of land-based plastic waste entering the ocean. We calculate that 275 million metric tons (MT) of plastic waste was generated in 192 coastal countries in 2010, with 4.8 to 12.7 million MT entering the ocean. Population size and the quality of waste management systems largely determine which countries contribute the greatest mass of uncaptured waste available to become plastic marine debris. Without waste management infrastructure improvements, the cumulative quantity of plastic waste available to enter the ocean from land is predicted to increase by an order of magnitude by 2025.
6,689 citations
01 Jan 2015
5,515 citations
TL;DR: Global plastics production and the accumulation of plastic waste are documented, showing that trends in mega- and macro-plastic accumulation rates are no longer uniformly increasing and that the average size of plastic particles in the environment seems to be decreasing.
Abstract: One of the most ubiquitous and long-lasting recent changes to the surface of our planet is the accumulation and fragmentation of plastics. Within just a few decades since mass production of plastic...
4,044 citations
01 Mar 2012
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors estimate that the amount of municipal solid waste (MSW) generated by urban populations is growing even faster than the rate of urbanization and that by 2025 this will likely increase to 4.3 billion urban residents.
Abstract: Solid waste management is the one thing just about every city government provides for its residents. While service levels, environmental impacts and costs vary dramatically, solid waste management is arguably the most important municipal service and serves as a prerequisite for other municipal action. As the world hurtles toward its urban future, the amount of municipal solid waste (MSW), one of the most important by-products of an urban lifestyle, is growing even faster than the rate of urbanization. Ten years ago there were 2.9 billion urban residents who generated about 0.64 kg of MSW per person per day (0.68 billion tonnes per year). This report estimates that today these amounts have increased to about 3 billion residents generating 1.2 kg per person per day (1.3 billion tonnes per year). By 2025 this will likely increase to 4.3 billion urban residents generating about 1.42 kg/capita/day of municipal solid waste (2.2 billion tonnes per year).
2,233 citations
TL;DR: To assess the environmental risk associated with microplastics, comprehensive data on their abundance, fate, sources, and biological effects in freshwater ecosystems are needed.
Abstract: While the use of plastic materials has generated huge societal benefits, the ‘plastic age’ comes with downsides: One issue of emerging concern is the accumulation of plastics in the aquatic environment. Here, so-called microplastics (MP), fragments smaller than 5 mm, are of special concern because they can be ingested throughout the food web more readily than larger particles. Focusing on freshwater MP, we briefly review the state of the science to identify gaps of knowledge and deduce research needs. Environmental scientists started investigating marine (micro)plastics in the early 2000s. Today, a wealth of studies demonstrates that MP have ubiquitously permeated the marine ecosystem, including the polar regions and the deep sea. MP ingestion has been documented for an increasing number of marine species. However, to date, only few studies investigate their biological effects. The majority of marine plastics are considered to originate from land-based sources, including surface waters. Although they may be important transport pathways of MP, data from freshwater ecosystems is scarce. So far, only few studies provide evidence for the presence of MP in rivers and lakes. Data on MP uptake by freshwater invertebrates and fish is very limited. While the research on marine MP is more advanced, there are immense gaps of knowledge regarding freshwater MP. Data on their abundance is fragmentary for large and absent for small surface waters. Likewise, relevant sources and the environmental fate remain to be investigated. Data on the biological effects of MP in freshwater species is completely lacking. The accumulation of other freshwater contaminants on MP is of special interest because ingestion might increase the chemical exposure. Again, data is unavailable on this important issue. MP represent freshwater contaminants of emerging concern. However, to assess the environmental risk associated with MP, comprehensive data on their abundance, fate, sources, and biological effects in freshwater ecosystems are needed. Establishing such data critically depends on a collaborative effort by environmental scientists from diverse disciplines (chemistry, hydrology, ecotoxicology, etc.) and, unsurprisingly, on the allocation of sufficient public funding.
933 citations