Properties and performance of a center/surround retinex

doi:10.1109/83.557356

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Properties and performance of a center/surround retinex

Journal Article•DOI•

Properties and performance of a center/surround retinex

D.J. Jobson¹, Zia-ur Rahman¹, G.A. Woodell¹•Institutions (1)

Langley Research Center¹

01 Mar 1997-IEEE Transactions on Image Processing (IEEE)-Vol. 6, Iss: 3, pp 451-462

TL;DR: A practical implementation of the retinex is defined without particular concern for its validity as a model for human lightness and color perception, and the trade-off between rendition and dynamic range compression that is governed by the surround space constant is described.

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Abstract: The last version of Land's (1986) retinex model for human vision's lightness and color constancy has been implemented and tested in image processing experiments. Previous research has established the mathematical foundations of Land's retinex but has not subjected his lightness theory to extensive image processing experiments. We have sought to define a practical implementation of the retinex without particular concern for its validity as a model for human lightness and color perception. We describe the trade-off between rendition and dynamic range compression that is governed by the surround space constant. Further, unlike previous results, we find that the placement of the logarithmic function is important and produces best results when placed after the surround formation. Also unlike previous results, we find the best rendition for a "canonical" gain/offset applied after the retinex operation. Various functional forms for the retinex surround are evaluated, and a Gaussian form is found to perform better than the inverse square suggested by Land. Images that violate the gray world assumptions (implicit to this retinex) are investigated to provide insight into cases where this retinex fails to produce a good rendition.

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Journal Article•DOI•

A multiscale retinex for bridging the gap between color images and the human observation of scenes

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D.J. Jobson¹, Zia-ur Rahman², G.A. Woodell¹•Institutions (2)

Langley Research Center¹, College of William & Mary²

01 Jul 1997-IEEE Transactions on Image Processing

TL;DR: This paper extends a previously designed single-scale center/surround retinex to a multiscale version that achieves simultaneous dynamic range compression/color consistency/lightness rendition and defines a method of color restoration that corrects for this deficiency at the cost of a modest dilution in color consistency.

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Abstract: Direct observation and recorded color images of the same scenes are often strikingly different because human visual perception computes the conscious representation with vivid color and detail in shadows, and with resistance to spectral shifts in the scene illuminant. A computation for color images that approaches fidelity to scene observation must combine dynamic range compression, color consistency-a computational analog for human vision color constancy-and color and lightness tonal rendition. In this paper, we extend a previously designed single-scale center/surround retinex to a multiscale version that achieves simultaneous dynamic range compression/color consistency/lightness rendition. This extension fails to produce good color rendition for a class of images that contain violations of the gray-world assumption implicit to the theoretical foundation of the retinex. Therefore, we define a method of color restoration that corrects for this deficiency at the cost of a modest dilution in color consistency. Extensive testing of the multiscale retinex with color restoration on several test scenes and over a hundred images did not reveal any pathological behaviour.

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2,395 citations

Cites background from "Properties and performance of a cen..."

...CONSTRUCTION OF A MULTISCALE CENTER/SURROUND RETINEX The single-scale retinex [10]–[12] is given by (1) where is the retinex output, is the image distribution in the th spectral band, “*” denotes the convolution operation, and is the surround function where is the Gaussian surround space constant, andis selected such that The MSR output is then simply a weighted sum of the outputs of several different SSR outputs....
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...We have previously defined a single-scale retinex [10] (SSR) that can either provide dynamic range compression (small scale), or tonal rendition (large scale), but not both simultaneously....
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...For the SSR this value is 1.5 : 1 or less....
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...The single-scale retinex [10]–[12] is given by...
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...Looking at the forms of the CRF of (5) and the SSR of (1), we conjecture that the CRF represents a spectral analog to the spatial retinex....
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Proceedings Article•DOI•

Person re-identification by Local Maximal Occurrence representation and metric learning

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Shengcai Liao¹, Yang Hu¹, Xiangyu Zhu¹, Stan Z. Li¹•Institutions (1)

Chinese Academy of Sciences¹

07 Jun 2015

TL;DR: This paper proposes an effective feature representation called Local Maximal Occurrence (LOMO), and a subspace and metric learning method called Cross-view Quadratic Discriminant Analysis (XQDA), and presents a practical computation method for XQDA.

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Abstract: Person re-identification is an important technique towards automatic search of a person's presence in a surveillance video. Two fundamental problems are critical for person re-identification, feature representation and metric learning. An effective feature representation should be robust to illumination and viewpoint changes, and a discriminant metric should be learned to match various person images. In this paper, we propose an effective feature representation called Local Maximal Occurrence (LOMO), and a subspace and metric learning method called Cross-view Quadratic Discriminant Analysis (XQDA). The LOMO feature analyzes the horizontal occurrence of local features, and maximizes the occurrence to make a stable representation against viewpoint changes. Besides, to handle illumination variations, we apply the Retinex transform and a scale invariant texture operator. To learn a discriminant metric, we propose to learn a discriminant low dimensional subspace by cross-view quadratic discriminant analysis, and simultaneously, a QDA metric is learned on the derived subspace. We also present a practical computation method for XQDA, as well as its regularization. Experiments on four challenging person re-identification databases, VIPeR, QMUL GRID, CUHK Campus, and CUHK03, show that the proposed method improves the state-of-the-art rank-1 identification rates by 2.2%, 4.88%, 28.91%, and 31.55% on the four databases, respectively.

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2,209 citations

Cites methods from "Properties and performance of a cen..."

...In this paper, we propose to apply the Retinex algorithm [20, 17, 16] to preprocess person images....
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Journal Article•DOI•

LIME: Low-Light Image Enhancement via Illumination Map Estimation

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Xiaojie Guo¹, Yu Li², Haibin Ling³•Institutions (3)

Chinese Academy of Sciences¹, Agency for Science, Technology and Research², Temple University³

01 Feb 2017-IEEE Transactions on Image Processing

TL;DR: Experiments on a number of challenging low-light images are present to reveal the efficacy of the proposed LIME and show its superiority over several state-of-the-arts in terms of enhancement quality and efficiency.

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Abstract: When one captures images in low-light conditions, the images often suffer from low visibility. Besides degrading the visual aesthetics of images, this poor quality may also significantly degenerate the performance of many computer vision and multimedia algorithms that are primarily designed for high-quality inputs. In this paper, we propose a simple yet effective low-light image enhancement (LIME) method. More concretely, the illumination of each pixel is first estimated individually by finding the maximum value in R, G, and B channels. Furthermore, we refine the initial illumination map by imposing a structure prior on it, as the final illumination map. Having the well-constructed illumination map, the enhancement can be achieved accordingly. Experiments on a number of challenging low-light images are present to reveal the efficacy of our LIME and show its superiority over several state-of-the-arts in terms of enhancement quality and efficiency.

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1,364 citations

Cites background from "Properties and performance of a cen..."

...In Retinex theory [8], the dominant assumption is that the (color) image can be decomposed into two factors, say reflectance and illumination....
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Journal Article•DOI•

Naturalness Preserved Enhancement Algorithm for Non-Uniform Illumination Images

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Shuhang Wang¹, Jin Zheng¹, Hai-Miao Hu¹, Bo Li¹•Institutions (1)

Beihang University¹

01 Sep 2013-IEEE Transactions on Image Processing

TL;DR: Experimental results demonstrate that the proposed enhancement algorithm can not only enhance the details but also preserve the naturalness for non-uniform illumination images.

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Abstract: Image enhancement plays an important role in image processing and analysis. Among various enhancement algorithms, Retinex-based algorithms can efficiently enhance details and have been widely adopted. Since Retinex-based algorithms regard illumination removal as a default preference and fail to limit the range of reflectance, the naturalness of non-uniform illumination images cannot be effectively preserved. However, naturalness is essential for image enhancement to achieve pleasing perceptual quality. In order to preserve naturalness while enhancing details, we propose an enhancement algorithm for non-uniform illumination images. In general, this paper makes the following three major contributions. First, a lightness-order-error measure is proposed to access naturalness preservation objectively. Second, a bright-pass filter is proposed to decompose an image into reflectance and illumination, which, respectively, determine the details and the naturalness of the image. Third, we propose a bi-log transformation, which is utilized to map the illumination to make a balance between details and naturalness. Experimental results demonstrate that the proposed algorithm can not only enhance the details but also preserve the naturalness for non-uniform illumination images.

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918 citations

Cites background or methods or result from "Properties and performance of a cen..."

...Up to now, image enhancement has been applied to varied areas of science and engineering, such as atmospheric sciences, astrophotography, biomedicine, computer vision, etc. [1]–[4]....
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...In this section, we present the technique details of the proposed enhancement algorithm which includes three parts, as shown in Fig....
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...From Table II, we can see that GUM gets the highest visibility level and our algorithm gets the second....
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...Most Retinex-based algorithms extract the reflectance as the enhanced result by removing the illumination, and therefore they can enhance the details obviously [5]–[7]....
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...As subjective assessment depends on human visual system, it is hard to find an objective measure that is in accordance with the subjective assessment....
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Journal Article•DOI•

A visibility matching tone reproduction operator for high dynamic range scenes

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Gregory Ward Larson, Holly Rushmeier, Christine D. Piatko

01 Oct 1997-IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics

TL;DR: A tone reproduction operator is presented that preserves visibility in high dynamic range scenes and introduces a new histogram adjustment technique, based on the population of local adaptation luminances in a scene, that incorporates models for human contrast sensitivity, glare, spatial acuity, and color sensitivity.

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Abstract: We present a tone reproduction operator that preserves visibility in high dynamic range scenes. Our method introduces a new histogram adjustment technique, based on the population of local adaptation luminances in a scene. To match subjective viewing experience, the method incorporates models for human contrast sensitivity, glare, spatial acuity, and color sensitivity. We compare our results to previous work and present examples of our techniques applied to lighting simulation and electronic photography.

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723 citations

Cites methods from "Properties and performance of a cen..."

...In the field of image processing, Jobson et al. [ 11 ] have developed digital tone-mapping methods for electronic photography based on Land’s retinex theory [12]....
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References

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Book•

Analog VLSI and Neural Systems

[...]

Carver A. Mead¹•Institutions (1)

California Institute of Technology¹

01 Jan 1989

TL;DR: This chapter discusses a simple circuit that can generate a sinusoidal response and calls this circuit the second-order section, which can be used to generate any response that can be represented by two poles in the complex plane, where the two poles have both real and imaginary parts.

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2,460 citations

"Properties and performance of a cen..." refers background or result in this paper

...Processing schemes [3], [6], [ 10 ] adhering closely to natural vision science, i.e., an approximate log photoreceptor response, favor placing log response at the photodetection stage prior to any surround formation....
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...This is completely contrary to the measured approximate logarithmic response of cone photoreceptors and the design of Mead’s silicon retina [ 10 ], which was based on those measurements....
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Journal Article•DOI•

An alternative technique for the computation of the designator in the retinex theory of color vision.

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Edwin H Land

01 May 1986-Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

TL;DR: The present paper describes a relatively simple alternative technique for the computation of the designator in retinex theory and reports the general operational effectiveness of the new technique, including the competence, not possessed by earlier algorithms, for generating Mach bands.

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Abstract: Accepting the first postulate of the retinex theory of color vision that there are three independent lightness-determining mechanisms (one for long waves, one for middle waves, and one for short waves), each operative with less than a millisecond exposure and each served by its own retinal pigment, a basic task of retinex theory becomes the determination of the nature of these mechanisms. Earlier references proposed several workable algorithms. [Land, E. H. (1959) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 45, 115-129; Land, E. H. (1959) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 45, 636-644; Land, E. H. (1983) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 80, 5163-5169; Land, E. H. & McCann, J. J. (1971) J. Opt. Soc. Am. 61, 1-11; Land, E. H. (1986) Vision Res. 26, 7-21.] The present paper describes a relatively simple alternative technique for the computation of the designator in retinex theory and reports the general operational effectiveness of the new technique, including the competence, not possessed by earlier algorithms, for generating Mach bands.

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613 citations

"Properties and performance of a cen..." refers background or methods or result in this paper

...The last version of Land’s retinex [ 2 ] has captured our attention because of the ease of implementation and manipulation of key variables, and because it does not have “unnatural” requirements for scene calibration....
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...Land’s proposal [ 2 ] of the center/surround retinex does not explicitly address the issue of a final treatment with the possible implication that none is necessary....
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...We have chosen a Gaussian surround form whereas Land opted for a function [ 2 ] and Moore et al. [3] used a different exponential form....
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...Our implementation differs from previous ones in that Land [ 2 ] proposed an inverse square surround while Moore et al. [3] and Hurlbert [6] concentrated on placement of the log prior to surround formation (or else considered placement as interchangeable)....
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...This form is also that given in Land’s original presentation [ 2 ], though he is quoted as feeling the two forms were equally useful in practice [6]....
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Journal Article•DOI•

Analysis of the retinex theory of color vision.

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David H. Brainard¹, Brian A. Wandell¹•Institutions (1)

Stanford University¹

01 Oct 1986-Journal of The Optical Society of America A-optics Image Science and Vision

TL;DR: It is shown that the retinex algorithm is too sensitive to changes in the color of nearby objects to serve as an adequate model of human color constancy.

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Abstract: If color appearance is to be a useful feature in identifying an object, then color appearance must remain roughly constant when the object is viewed in different contexts. People maintain approximate color constancy despite variation in the color of nearby objects and despite variation in the spectral power distribution of the ambient light. Land's retinex algorithm is a model of human color constancy. We analyze the retinex algorithm and discuss its general properties. We show that the algorithm is too sensitive to changes in the color of nearby objects to serve as an adequate model of human color constancy.

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498 citations

"Properties and performance of a cen..." refers background in this paper

...Because the retinex exchanges illumination variations for scene reflectance context dependency [ 9 ], scene content becomes a major issue especially when it deviates from regionally gray average values—the “gray world” assumption [1]....
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Journal Article•DOI•

Recent Advances in Retinex Theory

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Edwin H Land¹•Institutions (1)

Rowland Institute for Science¹

01 Jan 1986-Vision Research

TL;DR: It is shown that the paradox of colour constancy does not really exist because it is not true that the colour of a point on an object is determined by the composition of the light coming from the object.

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Abstract: It is a cultural commonplace deriving from Newton that the colour of an object we see in the world around us depends on the relative amounts of red light, green light, and blue light coming from that object to our eyes. For a very long time it has been known that the colour of the object when it is part of a general scene will not change markedly with those considerable changes in the relative amounts of red, green, and blue light in the illumination which characterize sunlight versus blue skylight versus grey day versus tungsten light versus fluorescent light. This contradiction was named “colour constancy.” Rather than dwelling on the explanations of colour constancy by Helmholtz and those who have followed him during the last century let us go on to show that the paradox does not really exist because it is not true that the colour of a point on an object is determined by the composition of the light coming from the object.

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495 citations

Journal Article•DOI•

Spectral sensitivity of cones of the monkey Macaca fascicularis.

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Denis A. Baylor¹, B J Nunn¹, J. L. Schnapf¹•Institutions (1)

Stanford University¹

01 Sep 1987-The Journal of Physiology

TL;DR: Psychophysical results on human colour matching were well predicted from the spectral sensitivities of the monkey cones, and the spectra of the red and green cones matched the respective pi 5 and pi 4 mechanisms of Stiles (1953, 1959).

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Abstract: 1. Spectral sensitivities of cones in the retina of cynomolgus monkeys were determined by recording photocurrents from single outer segments with a suction electrode. 2. The amplitude and shape of the response to a flash depended upon the number of photons absorbed but not the wave-length, so that the 'Principle of Univariance' was obeyed. 3. Spectra were obtained from five 'blue', twenty 'green', and sixteen 'red' cones. The wave-lengths of maximum sensitivity were approximately 430, 531 and 561 nm, respectively. 4. The spectra of the three types of cones had similar shapes when plotted on a log wave number scale, and were fitted by an empirical expression. 5. There was no evidence for the existence of subclasses of cones with different spectral sensitivities. Within a class, the positions of the individual spectra on the wave-length axis showed a standard deviation of less than 1.5 nm. 6. Psychophysical results on human colour matching (Stiles & Burch, 1955; Stiles & Burch, 1959) were well predicted from the spectral sensitivities of the monkey cones. After correction for pre-retinal absorption and pigment self-screening, the spectra of the red and green cones matched the respective pi 5 and pi 4 mechanisms of Stiles (1953, 1959).

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397 citations