Qualitative content analysis in nursing research: concepts, procedures and measures to achieve trustworthiness

doi:10.1016/J.NEDT.2003.10.001

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Qualitative content analysis in nursing research: concepts, procedures and measures to achieve trustworthiness

Journal Article•DOI•

Qualitative content analysis in nursing research: concepts, procedures and measures to achieve trustworthiness

Ulla Hällgren Graneheim¹, Berit Lundman¹•Institutions (1)

Umeå University¹

01 Feb 2004-Nurse Education Today (Elsevier)-Vol. 24, Iss: 2, pp 105-112

TL;DR: An overview of important concepts related to qualitative content analysis is provided and measures to achieve trustworthiness (credibility, dependability and transferability) throughout the steps of the research procedure are proposed.

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About: This article is published in Nurse Education Today.The article was published on 2004-02-01. It has received 16695 citations till now. The article focuses on the topics: Nursing research & Qualitative research.

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Citations

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자연주의적 탐구조사(Naturalistic Inquiry)

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유창조

01 Apr 2000

17,938 citations

Journal Article•DOI•

The qualitative content analysis process

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Satu Elo¹, Helvi Kyngäs¹•Institutions (1)

University of Oulu¹

01 Apr 2008-Journal of Advanced Nursing

TL;DR: Inductive content analysis is used in cases where there are no previous studies dealing with the phenomenon or when it is fragmented, and a deductive approach is useful if the general aim was to test a previous theory in a different situation or to compare categories at different time periods.

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Abstract: Aim This paper is a description of inductive and deductive content analysis. Background Content analysis is a method that may be used with either qualitative or quantitative data and in an inductive or deductive way. Qualitative content analysis is commonly used in nursing studies but little has been published on the analysis process and many research books generally only provide a short description of this method. Discussion When using content analysis, the aim was to build a model to describe the phenomenon in a conceptual form. Both inductive and deductive analysis processes are represented as three main phases: preparation, organizing and reporting. The preparation phase is similar in both approaches. The concepts are derived from the data in inductive content analysis. Deductive content analysis is used when the structure of analysis is operationalized on the basis of previous knowledge. Conclusion Inductive content analysis is used in cases where there are no previous studies dealing with the phenomenon or when it is fragmented. A deductive approach is useful if the general aim was to test a previous theory in a different situation or to compare categories at different time periods.

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14,963 citations

Cites methods from "Qualitative content analysis in nur..."

...The preparation phase starts with selecting the unit of analysis (McCain 1988, Cavanagh 1997, Guthrie et al. 2004)....
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Journal Article•DOI•

Content analysis and thematic analysis: Implications for conducting a qualitative descriptive study

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Mojtaba Vaismoradi¹, Mojtaba Vaismoradi², Hannele Turunen³, Terese Bondas², Terese Bondas³ - Show less +1 more•Institutions (3)

Swansea University¹, University of Nordland², University of Eastern Finland³

01 Sep 2013-Nursing & Health Sciences

TL;DR: It is concluded that in spite of many similarities between the approaches, including cutting across data and searching for patterns and themes, their main difference lies in the opportunity for quantification of data.

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Abstract: Qualitative content analysis and thematic analysis are two commonly used approaches in data analysis of nursing research, but boundaries between the two have not been clearly specified. In other words, they are being used interchangeably and it seems difficult for the researcher to choose between them. In this respect, this paper describes and discusses the boundaries between qualitative content analysis and thematic analysis and presents implications to improve the consistency between the purpose of related studies and the method of data analyses. This is a discussion paper, comprising an analytical overview and discussion of the definitions, aims, philosophical background, data gathering, and analysis of content analysis and thematic analysis, and addressing their methodological subtleties. It is concluded that in spite of many similarities between the approaches, including cutting across data and searching for patterns and themes, their main difference lies in the opportunity for quantification of data. It means that measuring the frequency of different categories and themes is possible in content analysis with caution as a proxy for significance.

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5,509 citations

Cites background or methods from "Qualitative content analysis in nur..."

...Communication theory has been introduced as a way to address the issue of interpretation and to clarify the underlying assumptions of content analysis (Graneheim & Lundman, 2004)....
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...A pragmatic way to state the difference between a theme and a category is that the latter refers mainly to a descriptive level of content and can thus be seen as an expression of the manifest content of the text, whilst the former is the expression of the latent content (Graneheim & Lundman, 2004)....
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...Data corpus, data item, data extract, code, and theme in thematic analysis are equivalent in content analysis to the unit of analysis, meaning unit, condensed meaning unit, code, and category/theme, respectively (Graneheim & Lundman, 2004; Braun & Clarke, 2006; Elo & Kyngäs, 2008)....
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...It is said that both manifest and latent content deal with interpretation, but the interpretation varies in depth and level of abstraction (Graneheim & Lundman, 2004; Powers & Knapp, 2006)....
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...An approach that is inexact and fits into different methodologies can be seen as merely a tool (Graneheim & Lundman, 2004)....
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Journal Article•DOI•

Qualitative Content Analysis: A Focus on Trustworthiness

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Satu Elo¹, Maria Kääriäinen², Maria Kääriäinen¹, Outi Kanste, Tarja Pölkki¹, Kati Utriainen¹, Helvi Kyngäs¹, Helvi Kyngäs² - Show less +4 more•Institutions (2)

University of Oulu¹, Oulu University Hospital²

11 Feb 2014-SAGE Open

TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined the trustworthiness of content analysis in nursing science studies and found that content analysis is commonly used for analyzing qualitative data, however, few articles have examined the use of QCA in nursing studies.

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Abstract: Qualitative content analysis is commonly used for analyzing qualitative data. However, few articles have examined the trustworthiness of its use in nursing science studies. The trustworthiness of q...

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5,401 citations

Cites background or methods from "Qualitative content analysis in nur..."

...According to Graneheim and Lundman (2004), an essential consideration when discussing the trustworthiness of findings from a qualitative content analysis is that there is always some degree of interpretation when approaching a text....
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...Trustworthiness is increased if the results are presented in a way that allows the reader to look for alternative interpretations (Graneheim & Lundman, 2004)....
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...…inquiry, and not the researcher’s biases, motivations, or perspectives (Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Polit & Beck, 2012) This is one reason why authors often present representative quotations from transcribed text (Graneheim & Lundman, 2004), particularly to show a connection between the data and results....
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...Authors may offer suggestions about transferability, but it is ultimately down to the reader’s judgment as to whether or not the reported results are transferable to another context (Graneheim & Lundman, 2004)....
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...…12 methodological content analysis articles from databases and reference list checks (Cavanagh, 1997; Downe-Wamboldt, 1992; Elo & Kyngäs, 2008; Graneheim & Lundman, 2004; Guthrie, Yongvanich, & Ricceri, 2004; Harwood & Garry, 2003; Holdford, 2008; Hsieh & Shannon, 2005; Morgan, 1993; Potter &…...
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Journal Article•DOI•

How to plan and perform a qualitative study using content analysis

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Mariette Bengtsson¹•Institutions (1)

Malmö University¹

01 Jan 2016-NursingPlus Open

TL;DR: This description of qualitative content analysis offers one approach that shows how the general principles of the method can be used and four distinct main stages are described: the decontextualisation, the recontextualization, the categorization, and the compilation.

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2,368 citations

Cites background or methods from "Qualitative content analysis in nur..."

...…(Downe-Wambolt, 1992; Long & Johnson, 2000) – and those who believe that a different set of criteria and concepts is needed (Catanzaro, 1988; Graneheim & Lundman, 2004), for example, the concepts credibility, dependability, transferability and confirmability created by Lincoln and Guba…...
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...The concept sub-theme can be used in a latent analysis instead of the concept categories (Graneheim & Lundman, 2004)....
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...This entails that the number of words is reduced without losing content of the unit (Graneheim & Lundman, 2004)....
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...Graneheim and Lundman (2004) prefer the concept content area, since, in their view, this elucidates a specific, explicit area....
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...(Graneheim & Lundman, 2004)....
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References

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Journal Article•DOI•

Qualitative Evaluation And Research Methods

[...]

Michael Quinn Patton

24 Jan 1992-The Modern Language Journal

TL;DR: The Nature of Qualitative Inquiry Theoretical Orientations Particularly Appropriate Qualitative Applications as mentioned in this paper, and Qualitative Interviewing: Qualitative Analysis and Interpretation Enhancing the quality and credibility of qualitative analysis and interpretation.

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Abstract: PART ONE: CONCEPTUAL ISSUES IN THE USE OF QUALITATIVE METHODS The Nature of Qualitative Inquiry Strategic Themes in Qualitative Methods Variety in Qualitative Inquiry Theoretical Orientations Particularly Appropriate Qualitative Applications PART TWO: QUALITATIVE DESIGNS AND DATA COLLECTION Designing Qualitative Studies Fieldwork Strategies and Observation Methods Qualitative Interviewing PART THREE: ANALYSIS, INTERPRETATION, AND REPORTING Qualitative Analysis and Interpretation Enhancing the Quality and Credibility of Qualitative Analysis

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31,305 citations

"Qualitative content analysis in nur..." refers background in this paper

...Parts of a text dealing with a specific issue have been referred to as a domain or rough structure (Patton, 1990), a cluster (Barrosso, 1997) and a content area (Baxter, 1991)....
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...Since the researcher is often the one who collects the data as well as the one who performs the analysis, the question of the researcher’s qualifications, training and experiences is important (Patton, 1990)....
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...All rights reserved....
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Book•

Content analysis: an introduction to its methodology

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Klaus Krippendorff

01 Jan 1980

TL;DR: History Conceptual Foundations Uses and Kinds of Inference The Logic of Content Analysis Designs Unitizing Sampling Recording Data Languages Constructs for Inference Analytical Techniques The Use of Computers Reliability Validity A Practical Guide

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Abstract: History Conceptual Foundations Uses and Kinds of Inference The Logic of Content Analysis Designs Unitizing Sampling Recording Data Languages Constructs for Inference Analytical Techniques The Use of Computers Reliability Validity A Practical Guide

...read moreread less

25,749 citations

"Qualitative content analysis in nur..." refers background in this paper

...Krippendorff (1980) emphasises that categories must be exhaustive and mutually exclusive....
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...Another issue is that concepts within the quantitative research tradition still predominate when describing qualitative content analysis (for example, Krippendorff, 1980; Burnard, 1991; DowneWamboldt, 1992), especially the use of concepts describing trustworthiness....
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...Since all data have multiple meanings (Krippendorff, 1980; Downe-Wamboldt, 1992), themes are not necessarily mutually exclusive....
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...A category is a group of content that shares a commonality (Krippendorff, 1980)....
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Journal Article•

Qualitative evaluation and research methods

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Michael Quinn Patton

01 Jan 1990-International Journal of Information Management

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22,714 citations

자연주의적 탐구조사(Naturalistic Inquiry)

[...]

유창조

01 Apr 2000

17,938 citations

"Qualitative content analysis in nur..." refers background or methods in this paper

...Qualitative research, based on data from narratives and observations, requires understanding and co-operation between the researcher and the participants, such that texts based on interviews and observations are mutual, contextual and value bound (Lincoln and Guba, 1985; Mishler, 1986)....
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...…concepts (manifest and latent content, unit of analysis, meaning unit, condensation, abstraction, content area, code, category and theme) related to qualitative content analysis; illustrates the use of concepts related to the research procedure; and proposes measures to achieve…...
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...In qualitative research the concepts credibility, dependability and transferability have been used to describe various aspects of trustworthiness (for example, Guba, 1981; Lincoln and Guba, 1985; Patton, 1987; Polit and Hungler, 1999; Berg and Welander Hansson, 2000)....
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Qualitative evaluation and research methods, 2nd ed.

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Michael Quinn Patton

01 Jan 1990

12,619 citations

"Qualitative content analysis in nur..." refers background in this paper

...Parts of a text dealing with a specific issue have been referred to as a domain or rough structure (Patton, 1990), a cluster (Barrosso, 1997) and a content area (Baxter, 1991)....
[...]
...Since the researcher is often the one who collects the data as well as the one who performs the analysis, the question of the researcher’s qualifications, training and experiences is important (Patton, 1990)....
[...]