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Journal Article•DOI•

Real-time structural health monitoring for concrete beams: a cost-effective ‘Industry 4.0’ solution using piezo sensors

Arka P. Ghosh, David J. Edwards, Mohammad Reza Hosseini, Riyadh Al-Ameri, Jemal H. Abawajy, Wellington Thwala 
05 May 2020-Vol. 39, Iss: 2, pp 283-311
TL;DR: This study merges industry 4.0 digital technologies with a novel low-cost and automated hybrid analysis for real-time structural health monitoring of concrete beams by fusing several multidisciplinary approaches into one integral technological configuration.
Abstract: Purpose: This research paper adopts the fundamental tenets of advanced technologies in industry 4.0 to monitor the structural health of concrete beam members using cost effective non-destructive technologies. In so doing, the work illustrates how a coalescence of low-cost digital technologies can seamlessly integrate to solve practical construction problems. Methodology: A mixed philosophies epistemological design is adopted to implement the empirical quantitative analysis of ‘real-time’ data collected via sensor-based technologies streamed through a Raspberry Pi and uploaded onto a cloud-based system. Data was analysed using a hybrid approach that combined both vibration characteristic based method and linear variable differential transducers (LVDT). Findings: The research utilises a novel digital research approach for accurately detecting and recording the localisation of structural cracks in concrete beams. This nondestructive low-cost approach was shown to perform with a high degree of accuracy and precision, as verified by the LVDT measurements. This research is testament to the fact that as technological advancements progress at an exponential rate, the cost of implementation continues to reduce to produce higher accuracy ‘mass-market’ solutions for industry practitioners. Originality: Accurate structural health monitoring of concrete structures necessitates expensive equipment, complex signal processing and skilled operator. The concrete industry is in dire need of a simple but reliable technique that can reduce the testing time, cost and complexity of maintenance of structures. This was the first experiment of its kind that seeks to develop an unconventional approach to solve the maintenance problem associated with concrete structures. This study merges industry 4.0 digital technologies with a novel low-cost and automated hybrid analysis for real-time structural health monitoring of concrete beams by fusing several multidisciplinary approaches in one integral technological configuration.

Summary (4 min read)

Jump to: [INTRODUCTION] – [STRUCTURAL HEALTH MONITORING OF CONCRETE MEMBERS] – [Sensor-based methods] – [Piezoceramic Sensors] – [RESEARCH PHILOSOPHY] – [Research Approach] – [Concrete member design] – [EXPERIMENT AND ANALYSIS DESIGN] – [Sensor Setup] – [Three-point bending test] – [FROM EXPERIMENTS TO FINDINGS] – [Test Beam 1 (control test)] – [THEORETICAL AND MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS] and [CONCLUSIONS]

INTRODUCTION

  • Indeed, over 25% of Canadian concrete bridges are deemed to be structurally deficient (Cusson et al., 2011), and 85% of high-rise buildings in New South Wales (NSW) built after 2000 had some form of structural failure (Randolph et al., 2019).
  • LVDT sensors will provide insufficient information regarding the cause of the observed displacement (Subramanian and Murugesan 2019), and microscopes can only observe and measure localised surface deformations without any indication of below surface deformations (Bernard 2019).
  • Researchers have also suggested the use of several forms of embedded and surface sensors in concrete to assess the concrete quality, economically (Taheri 2019b).

STRUCTURAL HEALTH MONITORING OF CONCRETE MEMBERS

  • Various methods for SHM are applied across the industry to observe, record and analyse physical changes to structural members throughout their lifecycle (Lynch et al., 2016).
  • Moreover, these methods are proven cumbersome with low efficacy and increasingly, are deemed impractical (Ghodoosi et al., 2018; Oesterreich and Teuteberg 2016).
  • Visual-based observation techniques such as the human eye, fibrescope, borescope, hand-held magnifier or stereo microscope are labour intensive and do not offer detailed or quantitative information about interior defects occurring internally within concrete members.
  • Acoustic techniques such as the rebound hammer, ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV), impact echo, spectral wave analysis, crosshole sonic lagging or parallel seismic have various limitations.
  • Set against this contextual backdrop, a paradigm shift has occurred in the market, where new low-cost and highly accurate digital methods are designed based on including sensors that can be embedded internally in new structures or on the surface of already existing structures (Li et al., 2016).

Sensor-based methods

  • The contemporary concreting industry has progressively moved away from cumbersome SHM tools and techniques (Zinno et al., 2019).
  • As illustrated, most existing techniques are complex, expensive and operators require rigorous training to possess competency in these techniques.
  • This study proposes a novel technique with the help of a pilot study to address this research and provide industry with a viable accurate solution at an extremely affordable cost.
  • Low- cost piezoceramic sensors ($2.22 AUD each) and a raspberry pi model B 3+ ($54 AUD) as a controller are identified as a viable alternative package for monitoring the structural health of concrete members.

Piezoceramic Sensors

  • Piezoceramic sensors have been utilised heavily for SHM in the aircraft industry (Chang 2016; Shen et al., 2006), automobile (Martinotto et al., 2016) and manufacturing (Hossain et al., 2016) industries.
  • Water solubility and high humidity environments can affect the sensor (Mikulik and Linderman 2019).
  • Moreover, Dong et al., (2019) suggest that the use of piezoceramic sensors may affect the mechanical properties of the concrete structure when they are embedded.
  • That said, these barriers can readily be overcome with cost-effective techniques.
  • Yan et al. (2013), also embedded sensors into smaller sized concrete blocks to form a concrete smart aggregate and avoid physical damage that may occur to the delicate patches (where the latter may be damaged during curing of concrete members).

RESEARCH PHILOSOPHY

  • Whilst interpretavism (Roberts et al. 2019) informs the research direction and methods of measurement employed (via qualitative analysis of literature), positivism is employed to conduct quantitative analysis of empirical data (Edwards et al. 2019).
  • This combination of philosophies ensures that a scientifically robust research instrument is adopted.

Research Approach

  • When piezoceramic sensors are used to measure the mechanical properties of concrete, one of three common methods are often adopted: the impendence based method; the vibration characteristic based method; and the lamb-wave based method (Stojić et al., 2012).
  • This data is then correlated to strain displacements measurements collected by a LVDT electric strain gauge to assess crack detection and occurrence in four test sample members under various loading conditions.
  • For data analysis, signal processing techniques were adopted including Fourier transform (ul Haq et al., 2017), Hilbert-Huang transform (Wei et al., 2016) and wavelet analysis (Jain et al., 2016).
  • Fourier transform, Hilbert-Huang transform and wavelet analysis methods require extensive mathematical computation and signal processing.
  • Hence, for the purposes of this study, a simple hybrid analysis technique that correlates vibrational voltage feedback from piezoelectric elements and simple LVDT strain gauge displacements is adopted to facilitate easy adoption by industry practitioners.

Concrete member design

  • The beam will have 25 mm cover on all sides .
  • The mix-design and material composition of the M25 grade concrete members are provided in Table 1.
  • The Raspberry Pi microcontroller is a low cost, credit card-sized computer that plugs into a computer monitor or TV, and uses a standard keyboard and mouse, and uses much lesser power than other equivalent computing units (Raspberry Pi Foundation 2019).
  • The analogue to digital converter (ADC), is utilised to convert the analogue data received from the piezoceramic sensor into digital signals that are passed to the Raspberry Pi.

EXPERIMENT AND ANALYSIS DESIGN

  • The concrete mix components have been prepared, weighed, and dry mixed before adding the water using a lab scale mixer at Deakin’s concrete laboratory.
  • Then, the wet mix has been poured into the prepared moulds.
  • The piezoceramic sensors are then attached to the pre-determined locations on the surface of the beams .
  • One beam will be tested in flexure under three- point loading set up.
  • Furthermore, surface cracks were visually monitored and measured to use as further reference material when compari g several results.

Sensor Setup

  • Sensors were attached to each beam externally using adhesive tape to ensure optimised surface contact between the sensors and the concrete beam.
  • The final beam included five sensors where there were two on each of the front and rear faces and one on the base of the beam .
  • Setting up the sensors involved attaching the wiring by ensuring the male end of a wire was touching the exposed wire from the sensor and securing with tape.
  • Where the wire length previously connected to the sensors was not long enough, further extensions are attached ensuring that the length ends with a male connection point.
  • First, it was anticipated that because the sensors will collect data within a range of 20 – 50 mm, they were placed in the region of expected large damage on the beam.

Three-point bending test

  • The test is performed on the beams to achieve the ultimate flexural load.
  • This is the maximum transverse load and the corresponding bending moment that the beam can tolerate before full structural failure.
  • All outputs have been connected to a control panel and data acquisitioning system to capture the load-displacement relationship of each test.
  • Therefore, the piezoceramic sensors were attached towards the mid-section of the beam.
  • The materials have the property of generating an electric charge when subjected to a mechanical strain (direct effect for sensor) and conversely, generate a mechanical strain when subjected to an applied electric field (Taheri 2019b).

FROM EXPERIMENTS TO FINDINGS

  • Final testing was carried on once the entire setup was ready.
  • The beam was placed on the testing frame and ensuring that the marking were made in such a way that 13 sensors are connected to the correct location.
  • The load was gradually applied on the beams and the code was run at the start of loading and the loading on the beams continued till the specimen failed due to excessive deformation and concrete crushing.
  • Data streams from the piezoceramic sensors were collected for all four samples in SmartWorks platform with technical support provided by AltAir Solutions Company (Agarwal and Alam 2018).

Test Beam 1 (control test)

  • Beam 1 had 13 sensors attached on the surfaces when the load was applied.
  • At initial time instant, the voltage fluctuation of the sensors is ignored.
  • In fact the voltage spikes occur a few seconds before the surface cracks are observed on camera.
  • Also certain micro-cracks and internal cracks which cannot be registered on camera or even on a microscope are easily detected through the piezoceramic sensors through minor voltage spikes.
  • Similar tests are repeated for beams 2, 3, 4 respectively with similar displacement graphs obtained for the respective beams with the piezoceramic sensors detecting a spike in voltage at each of the major displacement spikes.

THEORETICAL AND MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS

  • The multidisciplinary approach (using Industry 4.0 advanced technologies) adopted towards solving an important maintenance issues associated with the construction industry has some significant theoretical and managerial implications.
  • Specifically, the work provides an economical and multi-featured addition to extant literature in the area of non-destructive testing (NDT) techniques (as outlined in Appendices 1 and 2).
  • The research presented therefore provides a useful case study of Industry 4.0 adoption and thus serves to generate wider polemic debate and discussion within the contemporary construction and civil e gineering management discipline.
  • Significant time savings (and by implication, cost savings) can be made in turnaround time required to obtain test results.
  • Enhanced transferability of data across the supply chain to better inform practitioners involved in the post-construction stages and assist decision making on maintaining concrete structures.

CONCLUSIONS

  • Many of these techniques suffer from the limitations of economic infeasibility or complex signal-processing techniques.
  • Presently this method has been used on large scale infrastructure projects or some critical projects (Park et al., 2003; Su et al., 2018).
  • The results of this study prove that piezoceramic sensors could detect both internal and external cracks and assist in real-time monitoring of concrete structures.
  • This study also serves as a real-life application of Industry 4.0 in the construction sector and consequently, reveals how technology can automated this process moving forwards.

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International Journal of Building Pathology and Adaptation
REAL-TIME STRUCTURAL HEALTH MONITORING FOR
CONCRETE BEAMS: A COST-EFFECTIVE ‘INDUSTRY 4.0’
SOLUTION USING PIEZO SENSORS
Journal:
International Journal of Building Pathology and Adaptation
Manuscript ID
IJBPA-12-2019-0111.R3
Manuscript Type:
Original Article
Keywords:
Structural health monitoring, Industry 4.0, piezoceramic sensor,
concrete, Internet of things (IoT), Construction industry
International Journal of Building Pathology and Adaptation
International Journal of Building Pathology and Adaptation
Page 1 of 2
Ref: Manuscript ID IJBPA-12-2019-0111.R2
Journal: International Journal of Building Pathology and Adaptation
Title: Real-time structural health monitoring for concrete beams: a cost-effective ‘industry 4.0’
solution using piezo sensors
REVIEWERS’ COMMENTS AND AUTHORS’ RESPONSE
The authors wish to extend thanks to the referees once again for their constructive comments and
suggestions. These minor comments have now been addressed and a final file resubmitted for your
consideration using the ‘tracked changes’ feature within MS Word. Once again, thank you.
No.
Reviewer
Editor Comments
1
We are almost ready to accept your
manuscript for publication, however
there are a few minor points to be
addressed.
Referee No.1
2
Accept - The authors have certainly
made significant effort in addressing
some of the reviewer’s earlier comments,
and the quality of the manuscript has
significantly improved from the
‘originality’ and ‘contributions’
perspectives.
Referee No.2
3
The authors have made effort to improve
the paper, further change would be made
to expand the research implication
section and make sure the originality are
aligned with the research aims and
objectives.
4
The rationale of this research study is
interesting and meaning to the industry.
However, the solid explanations or
examples of its research implications are
neglect. The results and implications of
this research can be seen as practical.
More discussions on its implications on
theory and real work practices are looked
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International Journal of Building Pathology and Adaptation
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forward.
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International Journal of Building Pathology and Adaptation
REAL-TIME STRUCTURAL HEALTH MONITORING FOR
CONCRETE BEAMS: A COST-EFFECTIVE ‘INDUSTRY 4.0’
SOLUTION USING PIEZO SENSORS
ABSTRACT
Purpose: This research paper adopts the fundamental tenets of advanced technologies in
industry 4.0 to monitor the structural health of concrete beam members using cost
effective non-destructive technologies. In so doing, the work illustrates how a
coalescence of low-cost digital technologies can seamlessly integrate to solve practical
construction problems.
Methodology: A mixed philosophies epistemological design is adopted to implement
the empirical quantitative analysis of ‘real-time’ data collected via sensor-based
technologies streamed through a Raspberry Pi and uploaded onto a cloud-based system.
Data was analysed using a hybrid approach that combined both vibration characteristic
based method and linear variable differential transducers (LVDT).
Findings: The research utilises a novel digital research approach for accurately
detecting and recording the localisation of structural cracks in concrete beams. This non-
destructive low-cost approach was shown to perform with a high degree of accuracy and
precision, as verified by the LVDT measurements. This research is testament to the fact
that as technological advancements progress at an exponential rate, the cost of
implementation continues to reduce to produce higher accuracy ‘mass-market’ solutions
for industry practitioners.
Originality: Accurate structural health monitoring of concrete structures necessitates
expensive equipment, complex signal processing and skilled operator. The concrete
industry is in dire need of a simple but reliable technique that can reduce the testing
time, cost and complexity of maintenance of structures. This was the first experiment of
its kind that seeks to develop an unconventional approach to solve the maintenance
problem associated with concrete structures. This study merges industry 4.0 digital
technologies with a novel low-cost and automated hybrid analysis for real-time
structural health monitoring of concrete beams by fusing several multidisciplinary
approaches in one integral technological configuration.
KEYWORDS
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International Journal of Building Pathology and Adaptation
Structural health monitoring, Industry 4.0, piezoceramic sensor, Internet of Things
(IoT), concrete, construction industry.
INTRODUCTION
Extant literature acknowledges the significance of implementing long-term structural
health monitoring (SHM) (Sheikh et al., 2016) systems for civil infrastructures, in order
to secure structural safety and issue incipient warnings of structural damage prior to
costly repair (Li et al., 2016). To underscore the scale of this operations and
maintenance activity, the concrete repair industry in the US is estimated to generate 25
billion USD per year (Al-Mahaidi and Kalfat 2018). Indeed, over 25% of Canadian
concrete bridges are deemed to be structurally deficient (Cusson et al., 2011), and 85%
of high-rise buildings in New South Wales (NSW) built after 2000 had some form of
structural failure (Randolph et al., 2019). SHM refers to a non-destructive process of
implementing a damage identification and diagnosis strategy (Sohn et al., 2003). In the
context of concrete members (cast in-situ or prefabricated), SHM refers to the detection
of abnormalities or deformities (i.e., arising via deterioration, damage or failure) and
provides information regarding structural health and integrity of concrete members for
continued use (Agarwal et al., 2017; Zou et al., 2019).
The structural health of concrete members relies on several factors, including
temperature (both external and internal), humidity, moisture content, applied stresses,
and boundary conditions during manufacturing and its life cycle (Strangfeld et al., 2017;
Tran et al., 2017). Structural members’ design normally takes these factors into
consideration (Ghodoosi et al., 2018). However, conditions are likely to change during
the service life of concrete members, with the potential to significantly affect the overall
health of the structure, providing the likelihood of deformations and failure (James et al.,
2019). Moreover, designers can implement little control over the external conditions
confronting concrete during its curing process (Joshi 2019; Moon et al., 2016).
In the current practice, several innovative and non-destructive methodologies have been
developed to address the above challenges, including c-scan (Liu et al., 2019); x-rays
(Marzec and Tejchman 2019); linear variable displacement transformers (LVDT)
(Mohandoss et al., 2019); conventional microscopes (Jang et al., 2019). The aim is to
identify and/or monitor structural deficiencies and cracks present in concrete structures
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Citations
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Patterns and trends in Internet of Things (IoT) research: future applications in the construction industry

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Arka P. Ghosh, David J. Edwards, M. Reza Hosseini
23 Aug 2020-Engineering, Construction and Architectural Management
TL;DR: This study is the first scientometric review of the existing body of knowledge in the context of application of the IoT in the construction industry by utilising a scientific mapping tool (i.e. VOSviewer) and exposes knowledge gaps in contemporary research.
Abstract: The Internet of Things (IoT) provides exciting opportunities for the construction industry to solve its time and resource constraints and frequent defaults. This study seeks to identify and rank the perceived importance level of principal research areas associated with the IoT and the construction industry by utilising a scientific mapping tool (i.e. VOSviewer). Such knowledge would enable key drivers for successful adoption of the IoT and digitisation technologies to be outlined. An analysis of key drivers and research trends that facilitates the development of a roadmap for applying the IoT and digital technologies in the construction sector is therefore much needed.,An interpretivist philosophical lens was adopted to analyse published work as secondary data, where each publication represented a unit of analysis. A total of 417 peer-reviewed journal review articles covering the IoT within the construction domain were systematically reviewed using a mixed-methods approach, utilising qualitative-scientometric analyses techniques.,The results revealed a field of study in a fledgling stage, with a limited number of experts operating somewhat in isolation and offering single-point solutions instead of taking an integrated “holistic” approach. Key publication outlets were identified and the main focus of research undertaken being in the technical areas of smart buildings, smart construction objects and environmental sustainability. The major effects of adopting the IoT within the construction industry were identified as high-speed reporting, complete process control, data explosion leading to deep data analytics, strict ethical and legal expectations. Key drivers of the IoT adoption were outlined: interoperability; data privacy and security; flexible governance structures; proper business planning and models.,The study benefits researchers and industry practitioners alike. For researchers, the identified gaps reveal areas of high priority in future research. For construction companies, particularly small to medium-sized businesses, the study raises awareness of the latest developments and potential applicability of the IoT in the industry. For government agencies and policymakers, this study offers a point of reference in directing the adoption of the IoT smoothly in the construction sector and provides guidelines and standards for maximising the potential benefits.,The study is the first scientometric review of the existing body of knowledge in the context of application of the IoT in the construction industry. Findings expose knowledge gaps in contemporary research, specifically, a broader consideration of organisational adjustments needed to accommodate the IoT usage, economic analyses and impediments to wider acceptance.

81 citations

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  • ...…the significant and plethora of advantages offered by Industry 4.0 for enhancing the construction industry’s performance (Bebelaar et al., 2018; Ghosh et al., 2020), a review of extant literature demonstrates conspicuous deficiencies with existing research undertaken; for example, there is a…...

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Jamia Millia Islamia1, Dr. B. R. Ambedkar National Institute of Technology Jalandhar2, G. B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology3
01 Jan 2021
TL;DR: Sensors are vital components of Industry 4.0, allowing several transitions such as changes in positions, length, height, external and dislocations in industrial production facilities to be detected, measured, analysed, and processed.
Abstract: Sensors play a crucial role in factory automation in making the system intellectual. Different types of sensors are available as per the suitability and applications; some of them are produced in mass and available in the market at affordable costs. The standard sensor types available are position sensors, pressure sensors, flow sensors, temperature sensors, and force sensors. They are used in many sectors, such as motorsport, medical, industry, aerospace, agriculture, and daily life. The objective of Industry 4.0 is to increase efficiency through automation. Sensors are vital components of Industry 4.0, allowing several transitions such as changes in positions, length, height, external and dislocations in industrial production facilities to be detected, measured, analysed, and processed. Smart factories will also enhance sustainability by tracking real-time output, and automated control systems will minimise potential factory maintenance costs. It can also be seen that digitalisation can improve production mobility, which gives advanced manufacturing firms a competitive advantage. This paper discusses sensors and their various types, along with significant capabilities for manufacturing. The step-by-step working Blocks and Quality Services of Sensors during implementation in Industry 4.0 are elaborated diagrammatically. Finally, we identified thirteen significant applications of sensors for Industry 4.0. Industry 4.0 provides an excellent opportunity for the development of the sensor market across the globe. In Industry 4.0, sensors will enjoy higher acceptance rates and benefit from a fully enabled connecting and data exchange and logistics integration. In the coming years, sensor installations may grow in process management, automated production lines, and digital supply chains.

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Structural health monitoring of civil engineering structures by using the internet of things: A review

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Mayank Mishra, Paulo B. Lourenço, Gunturi Venkata Ramana
01 Jan 2022-Journal of building engineering
TL;DR: In this paper , the authors summarized the applications of the wireless IoT technology in the monitoring of civil engineering infrastructure and discussed several case studies on real structures and laboratory investigations for monitoring the structural health of real-world constructions.
Abstract: Structural health monitoring (SHM) and damage assessment of civil engineering infrastructure are complex tasks. Structural health and strength of structures are influenced by various factors, such as the material production stage, transportation, placement, workmanship, formwork removal, and concrete curing. Technological advancements and the widespread availability of Wi-Fi networks has resulted in SHM shifting from traditional wire-based methods to Internet of Things (IoT)-based real-time wireless sensors. Comprehensive structural health assessment can be performed through the efficient use of real-time test data on structures obtained from various types of IoT sensors, which monitor several health parameters of structures, available on cloud-based data storage systems. The sensor data may be subsequently used for various applications, such as forecasting masonry construction deterioration, predicting the early-stage compressive strength of concrete, forecasting the optimum time for the removal of formwork, vibration and curing quality control, crack detection in buildings, pothole detection on roads, determination of the construction quality, corrosion diagnosis, identification of various damage typologies and seismic vulnerability assessment. This review paper summarizes the applications of the wireless IoT technology in the monitoring of civil engineering infrastructure. In addition, several case studies on real structures and laboratory investigations for monitoring the structural health of civil engineering constructions are discussed.

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Douglas Aghimien, Clinton Aigbavboa, David J. Edwards, Abdul-Majeed Mahamadu, Paul Olomolaiye, Hazel Nash, Michael E. Onyia 
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Abstract: Purpose: This study presents a fuzzy synthetic evaluation of the challenges of smart city realisation in developing countries, using Nigeria as a case study. By defined and delineating the problems facing the country, more viable directions to attaining smart city development can be achieved. Design/Methodology/ Approach: The study adopted a post-positivist philosophical stance with a deductive approach. A structured questionnaire was used to gather data from built environment professionals involved in the delivery of Nigerian public infrastructures. Six dimensions of the challenges of smart cities were identified from literature and explored. These are governance, economic, social, technological, environmental, and legal issues. Data gathered were analysed using Cronbach alpha test for reliability, Shapiro-Wilks test for normality, Kruskal-Wallis H-Test for consistency, and Fuzzy synthetic evaluation test for the synthetic evaluation of the challenges of smart city attainment. Findings: The findings revealed that all six assessed dimensions have a significant impact on the attainment of smart cities in Nigeria. More specifically, issues relating to environmental, technological, social and legal challenges are more prominent. Originality/Value: The fuzzy synthetic approach adopted provides a clear, practical insight on the issues that need to be addressed before the smart city development can be attained within developing countries.

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Systematic analysis of driverless technologies

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David J. Edwards1, Jahangir Akhtar1, Iain Rillie, Nicholas Chileshe2, Joseph H.K. Lai3, Chris Roberts1, Obuks Ejohwomu4 •
Birmingham City University1, University of South Australia2, Hong Kong Polytechnic University3, University of Manchester4
15 Jun 2021-Journal of Engineering, Design and Technology
TL;DR: A systematic review of extant literature on the application of driverless technologies in civil engineering and in particular, the highways infrastructure sector is presented and offers insight into the limitations of associated barriers to full adoption, namely, current technological development processes, legal deficiencies and societal concerns.
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29 citations

References
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Journal Article•DOI•
State-of-the-art in structural health monitoring of large and complex civil infrastructures

[...]

Hong-Nan Li1, Liang Ren1, Ziguang Jia1, Ting-Hua Yi1, Dongsheng Li1 •
Dalian University of Technology1
01 Feb 2016-Journal of Civil Structural Health Monitoring
TL;DR: A critical review of SHM objectives and standardization for the SHM in civil infrastructures, highlighting areas where further work is needed and a discussion of state-of-the-art in theSHM for civil inf infrastructure.
Abstract: Researchers and administrative authorities have long recognized the significance of implementing long-term structural health monitoring (SHM) systems for civil infrastructures, especially large-span space structures or other complex infrastructures, in order to secure structural safety and issue warnings regarding the structural damage prior to costly repair or even collapse. This paper starts with a critical review of SHM objectives and standardization for the SHM in civil infrastructures. At the same time as an example, the authors present their experiences through the case study of SHM applications for large and complex civil infrastructures through a custom-made polytypic and synchronous data acquisition device that was utilized in the SHM of the large-span gymnasium in Dalian. The paper concludes with a discussion of state-of-the-art in the SHM for civil infrastructures, highlighting areas where further work is needed.

168 citations

Journal Article•DOI•
Effects of internal curing on the strength, drying shrinkage and freeze–thaw resistance of concrete containing recycled concrete aggregates

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Salih Taner Yildirim1, Christian Meyer2, Simon Herfellner•
Kocaeli University1, Columbia University2
30 Aug 2015-Construction and Building Materials

159 citations

Journal Article•DOI•
A review on five key sensors for monitoring of concrete structures

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Shima Taheri1•
Macquarie University1
20 Apr 2019-Construction and Building Materials
TL;DR: This review presents the recent achievements in the field of sensors developed for monitoring the health of concrete infrastructures and the sensors particularly fabricated based on fiber optic, Bragg grating, piezoelectric, electrochemical, wireless and self-sensing technologies.

144 citations

Journal Article•DOI•
Improved concrete bridge deck evaluation using GPR by accounting for signal depth–amplitude effects

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Christopher L. Barnes1, Jean-François Trottier1, Dean Paul Forgeron1•
Dalhousie University1
01 Sep 2008-Ndt & E International
TL;DR: In this article, a normalization procedure for removing GPR signal losses resulting from depth-dependent two-way travel time variations in the data was developed and thresholds for predicting chain-drag and half-cell potential-based estimates of deterioration quantity and location were established.
Abstract: Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) surveys have tended to provide unpredictable accuracy in estimating areas of corrosion-induced damage in reinforced concrete bridge decks. Six in-service reinforced concrete bridge decks with exposed (unpaved) concrete wearing surfaces were surveyed using GPR to evaluate internal corrosion-induced damage for comparison against the chain drag and half-cell potential survey methods. A normalization procedure for removing GPR signal losses resulting from depth-dependent two-way travel time variations in the data was developed and thresholds for predicting chain-drag and half-cell potential-based estimates of deterioration quantity and location were established. Thresholds established using the amplitude–time correction provided significant improvements in the spatial and quantitative predictive capabilities of GPR for delineating corrosion-induced damage.

135 citations

Journal Article•DOI•
Multifunctional Cement Composites Strain and Damage Sensors Applied on Reinforced Concrete (RC) Structural Elements

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F.J. Baeza1, O. Galao1, Emilio Zornoza1, Pedro Garcés1•
University of Alicante1
06 Mar 2013-Materials
TL;DR: These cement composites could act as strain sensors, even for severe damaged structures near to their collapse, because of their versatility in reversible (elastic) sensing condition testing.
Abstract: In this research, strain-sensing and damage-sensing functional properties of cement composites have been studied on a conventional reinforced concrete (RC) beam. Carbon nanofiber (CNFCC) and fiber (CFCC) cement composites were used as sensors on a 4 m long RC beam. Different casting conditions (in situ or attached), service location (under tension or compression) and electrical contacts (embedded or superficial) were compared. Both CNFCC and CFCC were suitable as strain sensors in reversible (elastic) sensing condition testing. CNFCC showed higher sensitivities (gage factor up to 191.8), while CFCC only reached gage factors values of 178.9 (tension) or 49.5 (compression). Furthermore, damage-sensing tests were run, increasing the applied load progressively up to the RC beam failure. In these conditions, CNFCC sensors were also strain sensitive, but no damage sensing mechanism was detected for the strain levels achieved during the tests. Hence, these cement composites could act as strain sensors, even for severe damaged structures near to their collapse.

132 citations

Related Papers (5)
A Review of Machine Vision-Based Structural Health Monitoring: Methodologies and Applications

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06 Nov 2016-Journal of Sensors
Ye Xiaowei, Chuan-Zhi Dong, Liu Tan
Structural Health Monitoring: with Piezoelectric Wafer Active Sensors

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05 Dec 2007
Victor Giurgiutiu
Study of Sensor Network Applications in Building Construction

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01 Jan 2013
Xiaotao Wang
Digital technologies in non-destructive testing

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01 Oct 2019
A V Ponomarev, O V Ponomareva
Machine learning at the interface of structural health monitoring and non-destructive evaluation

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16 Oct 2020-Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A
Paul Gardner, R. Fuentes, Nikolaos Dervilis, Carmelo Mineo, Stephen Pierce, Elizabeth J. Cross, Keith Worden 
Frequently Asked Questions (16)
Q1. What contributions have the authors mentioned in the paper "Real-time structural health monitoring for concrete beams: a cost-effective ‘industry 4.0’ solution using piezo sensors" ?

This research paper adopts the fundamental tenets of advanced technologies in industry 4. 0 to monitor the structural health of concrete beam members using cost effective non-destructive technologies. This research is testament to the fact that as technological advancements progress at an exponential rate, the cost of implementation continues to reduce to produce higher accuracy ‘ mass-market ’ solutions for industry practitioners. This study merges industry 4. 0 digital technologies with a novel low-cost and automated hybrid analysis for real-time structural health monitoring of concrete beams by fusing several multidisciplinary approaches in one integral technological configuration. 

However, this approach being a preliminary scoping study had several limitations and some significant lessons for future studies. The use of wired sensors and its complex and sensitive circuit could potentially lead to delays and damage to devices. Studies investigating the exact range and lifespan of piezoceramic sensors could also further assist in fine-tuning this technique for in ustrial use. 

As cement continually reacts with water and developstrong bonds between mix components to build the final concrete strength, a protectivelayer is necessary to protect the embedded sensors from its boundary, moisture damage,and corrosion (Sanches et al., 2019). 

Acting as a sensor, actuator, accelerator ortransducer within the concrete member, the piezoceramic sensors detect the electricalenergy converted from mechanical energy and convert it into a voltage output (Ballasand Schoen 2017). 

Acoustic techniques such as the rebound hammer, ultrasonic pulse velocity(UPV), impact echo, spectral wave analysis, crosshole sonic lagging or parallel seismichave various limitations. 

The testing frame is self-supported type andprovide a full circle of loading system, while the loading has been introduced through ahydraulic jack with load cell to monitor the actual applied load. 

The ultimate load at which the structures failed was recorded as 88.37 kN , 83.31 kN,78.71 kN and 89.61kN for test samples 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively. 

Piezoceramic sensors have been utilised heavily for SHM in the aircraft industry (Chang2016; Shen et al., 2006), automobile (Martinotto et al., 2016) and manufacturing(Hossain et al., 2016) industries. 

In summary, although piezo elements have limitations of being fragile and non-waterresistant, their economic feasibility and simplicity of usage provide strong arguments forusing them on real-time SHM projects. 

it was anticipated that because the sensorswill collect data within a range of 20 – 50 mm, they were placed in the region ofexpected large damage on the beam. 

while it has been changed to deflection control of 1 mm/minute at the laterstages to ensure capturing the full load-deflection relationship and to avoid suddenfailure and damages to the instrumentations. 

This study investigates the application of low-costpiezoceramic sensors to detect deformations within the concrete structure (i.e., cracksand fractures) due to the member being placed under physical strain. 

The multidisciplinary approach (using Industry 4.0 advanced technologies) adoptedtowards solving an important maintenance issues associated with the constructionindustry has some significant theoretical and managerial implications. 

The four beams included 13sensors for each beam with five on the front and rear faces of the beam, one on the baseand two on the top (ref. Fig. 5 and 6). 

The main components used in the present ‘Industry 4.0’ study include: a Raspberry Pi;piezoceramic sensors; a breadboard; analogue to digital converter; and two 16-bitmultiplexers (refer to Figure 2).<Insert Figure 2 about here> 

conventional methods include different tests such as a simple human eyedetection of surface defects (Ghodoosi et al., 2018) or a compressive strength test whichonly provides results after a 28 day curing period (Yildirim et al., 2015).