Recycling of Spent Lithium-Ion Battery: A Critical Review
16 Apr 2014-Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology (Taylor & Francis)-Vol. 44, Iss: 10, pp 1129-1165
TL;DR: In this article, the authors review the current status of the recycling processes of spent lithium ion batteries, introduce the structure and components of the batteries, and summarize all available single contacts in batch mode operation, including pretreatment, secondary treatment, and deep recovery.
Abstract: Lithium-ion battery (LIB) applications in consumer electronics and electric vehicles are rapidly growing, resulting in boosting resources demand, including cobalt and lithium. So recycling of batteries will be a necessity, not only to decline the consumption of energy, but also to relieve the shortage of rare resources and eliminate the pollution of hazardous components, toward sustainable industries related to consumer electronics and electric vehicles. The authors review the current status of the recycling processes of spent LIBs, introduce the structure and components of the batteries, and summarize all available single contacts in batch mode operation, including pretreatment, secondary treatment, and deep recovery. Additionally, many problems and prospect of the current recycling processes will be presented and analyzed. It is hoped that this effort would stimulate further interest in spent LIBs recycling and in the appreciation of its benefits.
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TL;DR: The main roles of material science in the development of LIBs are discussed, with a statement of caution for the current modern battery research along with a brief discussion on beyond lithium-ion battery chemistries.
Abstract: Over the past 30 years, significant commercial and academic progress has been made on Li-based battery technologies. From the early Li-metal anode iterations to the current commercial Li-ion batteries (LIBs), the story of the Li-based battery is full of breakthroughs and back tracing steps. This review will discuss the main roles of material science in the development of LIBs. As LIB research progresses and the materials of interest change, different emphases on the different subdisciplines of material science are placed. Early works on LIBs focus more on solid state physics whereas near the end of the 20th century, researchers began to focus more on the morphological aspects (surface coating, porosity, size, and shape) of electrode materials. While it is easy to point out which specific cathode and anode materials are currently good candidates for the next-generation of batteries, it is difficult to explain exactly why those are chosen. In this review, for the reader a complete developmental story of LIB should be clearly drawn, along with an explanation of the reasons responsible for the various technological shifts. The review will end with a statement of caution for the current modern battery research along with a brief discussion on beyond lithium-ion battery chemistries.
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TL;DR: In this article, a detailed review of the state of the art and future perspectives of Li-ion batteries with emphasis on this potential is presented, with a focus on electric vehicles.
Abstract: Lithium-ion batteries play an important role in the life quality of modern society as the dominant technology for use in portable electronic devices such as mobile phones, tablets and laptops. Beyond this application lithium-ion batteries are the preferred option for the emerging electric vehicle sector, while still underexploited in power supply systems, especially in combination with photovoltaics and wind power. As a technological component, lithium-ion batteries present huge global potential towards energy sustainability and substantial reductions in carbon emissions. A detailed review is presented herein on the state of the art and future perspectives of Li-ion batteries with emphasis on this potential.
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TL;DR: The current range of approaches to electric-vehicle lithium-ion battery recycling and re-use are outlined, areas for future progress are highlighted, and processes for dismantling and recycling lithium-ions from scrap electric vehicles are outlined.
Abstract: Rapid growth in the market for electric vehicles is imperative, to meet global targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions, to improve air quality in urban centres and to meet the needs of consumers, with whom electric vehicles are increasingly popular. However, growing numbers of electric vehicles present a serious waste-management challenge for recyclers at end-of-life. Nevertheless, spent batteries may also present an opportunity as manufacturers require access to strategic elements and critical materials for key components in electric-vehicle manufacture: recycled lithium-ion batteries from electric vehicles could provide a valuable secondary source of materials. Here we outline and evaluate the current range of approaches to electric-vehicle lithium-ion battery recycling and re-use, and highlight areas for future progress. Processes for dismantling and recycling lithium-ion battery packs from scrap electric vehicles are outlined.
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TL;DR: In this paper, the current status of spent lithium-ion battery recycling is summarized in light of the whole recycling process, especially focusing on the hydrometallurgy, which is used to extract metals or separate impurities from a specific waste stream so that the recycled materials or compounds can be further prepared by incorporating principles of materials engineering.
Abstract: Recycling of spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) has attracted significant attention in recent years due to the increasing demand for corresponding critical metals/materials and growing pressure on the environmental impact of solid waste disposal. A range of investigations have been carried out for recycling spent LIBs to obtain either battery materials or individual compounds. For the effective recovery of materials to be enhanced, physical pretreatment is usually applied to obtain different streams of waste materials ensuring efficient separation for further processing. Subsequently, a metallurgical process is used to extract metals or separate impurities from a specific waste stream so that the recycled materials or compounds can be further prepared by incorporating principles of materials engineering. In this review, the current status of spent LIB recycling is summarized in light of the whole recycling process, especially focusing on the hydrometallurgy. In addition to understanding different hydromet...
634 citations
TL;DR: This perspective reviews key challenges and technological gaps impeding the successful realization of effective wearable chemical sensor systems, related to materials, power, analytical procedure, communication, data acquisition, processing, and security.
Abstract: Wearable sensors have received considerable interest over the past decade owing to their tremendous promise for monitoring the wearers’ health, fitness, and their surroundings. However, only limited attention has been directed at developing wearable chemical sensors that offer more comprehensive information about a wearer’s well-being. The development of wearable chemical sensors faces multiple challenges on various fronts. This perspective reviews key challenges and technological gaps impeding the successful realization of effective wearable chemical sensor systems, related to materials, power, analytical procedure, communication, data acquisition, processing, and security. Size, rigidity, and operational requirements of present chemical sensors are incompatible with wearable technology. Sensor stability and on-body sensor surface regeneration constitute key analytical challenges. Similarly, present wearable power sources are incapable of meeting the requirements for wearable electronics owing to their l...
578 citations
References
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TL;DR: A brief historical review of the development of lithium-based rechargeable batteries is presented, ongoing research strategies are highlighted, and the challenges that remain regarding the synthesis, characterization, electrochemical performance and safety of these systems are discussed.
Abstract: Technological improvements in rechargeable solid-state batteries are being driven by an ever-increasing demand for portable electronic devices. Lithium-ion batteries are the systems of choice, offering high energy density, flexible and lightweight design, and longer lifespan than comparable battery technologies. We present a brief historical review of the development of lithium-based rechargeable batteries, highlight ongoing research strategies, and discuss the challenges that remain regarding the synthesis, characterization, electrochemical performance and safety of these systems.
17,496 citations
TL;DR: Researchers must find a sustainable way of providing the power their modern lifestyles demand to ensure the continued existence of clean energy sources.
Abstract: Researchers must find a sustainable way of providing the power our modern lifestyles demand.
15,980 citations
Additional excerpts
...Taking the batteries with LiCoO2 as a cathode for instance, their processes are represented by Equation 1: LICoO2 + C6 Charge←→ Discharge Li(1−x)CoO2 + LixC6 (1) 3....
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...LICoO2 + C6 Charge ←→ Discharge Li(1−x)CoO2 + LixC6 (1)...
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TL;DR: The battery systems reviewed here include sodium-sulfur batteries that are commercially available for grid applications, redox-flow batteries that offer low cost, and lithium-ion batteries whose development for commercial electronics and electric vehicles is being applied to grid storage.
Abstract: The increasing interest in energy storage for the grid can be attributed to multiple factors, including the capital costs of managing peak demands, the investments needed for grid reliability, and the integration of renewable energy sources. Although existing energy storage is dominated by pumped hydroelectric, there is the recognition that battery systems can offer a number of high-value opportunities, provided that lower costs can be obtained. The battery systems reviewed here include sodium-sulfur batteries that are commercially available for grid applications, redox-flow batteries that offer low cost, and lithium-ion batteries whose development for commercial electronics and electric vehicles is being applied to grid storage.
11,144 citations
TL;DR: The phytochemical properties of Lithium Hexafluoroarsenate and its Derivatives are as follows: 2.2.1.
Abstract: 2.1. Solvents 4307 2.1.1. Propylene Carbonate (PC) 4308 2.1.2. Ethers 4308 2.1.3. Ethylene Carbonate (EC) 4309 2.1.4. Linear Dialkyl Carbonates 4310 2.2. Lithium Salts 4310 2.2.1. Lithium Perchlorate (LiClO4) 4311 2.2.2. Lithium Hexafluoroarsenate (LiAsF6) 4312 2.2.3. Lithium Tetrafluoroborate (LiBF4) 4312 2.2.4. Lithium Trifluoromethanesulfonate (LiTf) 4312 2.2.5. Lithium Bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (LiIm) and Its Derivatives 4313
5,710 citations
Additional excerpts
...Also the synthesis of LiCoO2 through the calcination of a mixed precursor of Li2CO3 and Co3O4 mixture, and the factors affecting it (initial Li/Co ratio, calcination atmosphere, temperature, leaching media [H2O or acetic acid], final Li/Co ratio, primary particle size, and conductivity) were studied by Lundblad and Bergman.79,80 Synthesis of LiMn2O4 spinel by heating a mixture of Li2CO3 and MnCO3 in air at various temperatures was reported by Hu et al.81 By reacting Li2CO3, CoCO3, and Ni(NO3)2·6H2O in air at 400◦C for 2–5 days, LiCo1-xNiO2 cathode material could be obtained for rechargeable Li-batteries....
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...Oxalate is introduced as leaching reagent meanwhile as precipitant, which leaches and precipitates cobalt from LiCoO2 and CoO directly as CoC2O4·2H2O with 1.0 mol/L oxalate solution at 80◦C and solid-to-liquid ratio of 50 g/L for 120 min....
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...The obtained aqueous solution would be precipitated with NH3·H2O to separate aluminum, and extracted with Cyanex 272 to separate cobalt from lithium resulting in a concentrated metal solution quite adequate for electrowinning.30 The H2SO4 liquor extracted from LiCoO2 leaching with H2SO4 + H2O2, was submitted to crystallization by means of water evaporation at different rates (from 80% to 95...
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...Leaching with 1.25 mol/L C6H8O7, 1.0 vol% H2O2 and a S:L of 20 g/L with agitation at 300 rpm in a batch extractor results in a highly efficient recovery of the metals within 30 min of the processing time at 90◦C.60 6.6 Comparison and Leaching Mechanism of Acid Leaching Regarding the conventional acid and organic acid, various leaching conditions are summarized in Table 3....
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...In this condition, Al and Li grades in the solid were lower than 0.4% and 0.6%, respectively.46 Regarding the solution from leaching with H2SO4 and H2O2, Cobalt was then selectively extracted from the purified aqueous phase by equilibrating with 50% saponified 0.4 M Cyanex 272 at an equilibrium pH ∼6....
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TL;DR: By modifying its crystal structure, lithium nickel manganese oxide is obtained unexpectedly high rate-capability, considerably better than lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2), the current battery electrode material of choice.
Abstract: New applications such as hybrid electric vehicles and power backup require rechargeable batteries that combine high energy density with high charge and discharge rate capability. Using ab initio computational modeling, we identified useful strategies to design higher rate battery electrodes and tested them on lithium nickel manganese oxide [Li(Ni 0.5 Mn 0.5 )O 2 ], a safe, inexpensive material that has been thought to have poor intrinsic rate capability. By modifying its crystal structure, we obtained unexpectedly high rate-capability, considerably better than lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO 2 ), the current battery electrode material of choice.
2,310 citations
"Recycling of Spent Lithium-Ion Batt..." refers methods in this paper
...Where A Org−+2(HA)2Org represents the solvent saponified by the reaction: NaAq + 1/2 (HA)2org ↔ NaAorg + HAq (13)...
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