Regulation of p53 stability by Mdm2
TL;DR: It is shown that interaction with Mdm2 can also result in a large reduction in p53 protein levels through enhanced proteasome-dependent degradation, which may contribute to the maintenance of low p53 concentrations in normal cells.
Abstract: The tumour-suppressor p53 is a short-lived protein that is maintained at low, often undetectable, levels in normal cells. Stabilization of the protein in response to an activating signal, such as DNA damage, results in a rapid rise in p53 levels and subsequent inhibition of cell growth. Tight regulation of p53 function is critical for normal cell growth and development, and one mechanism by which p53 function is controlled is through interaction with the Mdm2 protein. Mdm2 inhibits p53 cell-cycle arrest and apoptic functions and we show here that interaction with Mdm2 can also result in a large reduction in p53 protein levels through enhanced proteasome-dependent degradation. Endogenous levels of Mdm2 are sufficient to regulate p53 stability, and overexpression of Mdm2 can reduce the amount of endogenous p53. Because mdm2 is transcriptionally activated by p53, this degradative pathway may contribute to the maintenance of low p53 concentrations in normal cells. Furthermore, mechanisms regulating the Mdm2-induced degradation of p53 may play a role in controlling the extent and duration of the p53 response.
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TL;DR: This review discusses recent information on functions and mechanisms of the ubiquitin system and focuses on what the authors know, and would like to know, about the mode of action of ubi...
Abstract: The selective degradation of many short-lived proteins in eukaryotic cells is carried out by the ubiquitin system. In this pathway, proteins are targeted for degradation by covalent ligation to ubiquitin, a highly conserved small protein. Ubiquitin-mediated degradation of regulatory proteins plays important roles in the control of numerous processes, including cell-cycle progression, signal transduction, transcriptional regulation, receptor down-regulation, and endocytosis. The ubiquitin system has been implicated in the immune response, development, and programmed cell death. Abnormalities in ubiquitin-mediated processes have been shown to cause pathological conditions, including malignant transformation. In this review we discuss recent information on functions and mechanisms of the ubiquitin system. Since the selectivity of protein degradation is determined mainly at the stage of ligation to ubiquitin, special attention is focused on what we know, and would like to know, about the mode of action of ubiquitin-protein ligation systems and about signals in proteins recognized by these systems.
7,888 citations
TL;DR: Recent findings reveal that all known E3s utilize one of just two catalytic domains--a HECT domain or a RING finger--and crystal structures have provided the first detailed views of an active site of each type.
Abstract: ▪ Abstract The conjugation of ubiquitin to other cellular proteins regulates a broad range of eukaryotic cell functions. The high efficiency and exquisite selectivity of ubiquitination reactions reflect the properties of enzymes known as ubiquitin-protein ligases or E3s. An E3 recognizes its substrates based on the presence of a specific ubiquitination signal, and catalyzes the formation of an isopeptide bond between a substrate (or ubiquitin) lysine residue and the C terminus of ubiquitin. Although a great deal is known about the molecular basis of E3 specificity, much less is known about molecular mechanisms of catalysis by E3s. Recent findings reveal that all known E3s utilize one of just two catalytic domains—a HECT domain or a RING finger—and crystal structures have provided the first detailed views of an active site of each type. The new findings shed light on many aspects of E3 structure, function, and mechanism, but also emphasize that key features of E3 catalysis remain to be elucidated.
3,570 citations
TL;DR: It is demonstrated that glycogen synthase kinase-3beta (GSK-3 beta) phosphorylates cyclin D1 specifically on Thr-286, thereby triggering rapid cyclinD1 turnover, which leads to proteasomal degradation of D1 and linked to phosphorylation and proteolytic turnover of cyclin L1 and its subcellular localization during the cell division cycle.
Abstract: A family of cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) cooperatively regulates mammalian cell cycle progression (for review, see Sherr 1993). During G1 phase, D-type cyclins (D1, D2, and D3) are synthesized and assemble with either CDK4 or CDK6 in response to growth factor stimulation, thereby generating active holoenzymes that help inactivate the growth-suppressive function of the retinoblastoma protein (Rb) through its phosphorylation (for review, see Weinberg 1995). Cyclin D holoenzyme complexes also titrate CDK inhibitors, such as p27Kip1 and p21Cip1, facilitating the activation of cyclin E-CDK2 and subsequent entry into the DNA synthetic phase of the cell cycle (for review, see Sherr and Roberts 1995).
Ras-mediated pathways are important for cyclin D1 induction and its assembly with CDKs. Overexpression of activated oncogenic Ras alleles, but not wild-type Ras, initiates DNA synthesis independently of growth factor stimulation (Feramisco et al. 1984). Conversely, microinjection of antibodies that inactivate Ras or introduction of certain dominant-negative Ras alleles can block S-phase entry induced by mitogens (Mulcahy et al. 1985; Mittnacht et al. 1997; Peeper et al. 1997). Both cyclin D1 expression and assembly require the sequential activities of Raf1, mitogen-activated protein kinase-kinases (MEK1 and MEK2), and the sustained activation of extracellular signal-regulated protein kinases (ERKs; Albanese et al. 1995; Lavoie et al. 1996; Winston et al. 1996; Aktas et al. 1997; Kerkhoff and Rapp 1997; Weber et al. 1997; Cheng et al. 1998).
In turn, cyclin D1 degradation is mediated by phosphorylation-triggered, ubiquitin-dependent proteolysis (Diehl et al. 1997). Polyubiquitination of protein substrates involves the sequential action of three distinct enzymes termed E1, E2 (UBC; ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme), and E3 (ubiquitin ligase; Ciechanover 1994; King et al. 1996). Specificity of substrate recognition is dependent on several factors including E2 and E3 selectivity (King et al. 1996; Skowyra et al. 1997; Renny-Feldman et al. 1997), recognition motifs within the target proteins themselves (Glotzer et al. 1991), and, in some cases, a requirement for phosphorylation of specific residues within the substrate (Deshaies et al. 1995; Clurman et al. 1996; Lanker et al. 1996; Won et al. 1996). Ubiquitin-dependent degradation of cyclin D1 requires phosphorylation of a specific threonine residue (Thr-286) located near the protein carboxyl terminus, and this phosphorylation is not mediated by cyclin D-dependent kinases themselves (Diehl et al. 1997). Because the kinase that phosphorylates this residue has not yet been identified, it remains unclear whether cyclin D1 proteolysis, like its synthesis and assembly, is subject to mitogen regulation.
The subcellular distribution of D-type cyclins is also likely to be regulated by cell cycle-dependent events. Cyclin D1 accumulates in the nuclei of cells during G1 phase, but once DNA replication begins, it disappears from the nucleus (Baldin et al. 1993), despite the fact that its level of synthesis does not decrease markedly during S phase (Matsushime et al. 1991). The mechanisms that regulate the periodic subcellular redistribution of cyclin D1 during the cell division cycle have also not been defined.
We now demonstrate that glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK-3β) catalyzes the phosphorylation of cyclin D1 on Thr-286, thereby regulating cyclin D1 turnover in response to mitogenic signals. In turn, GSK-3β-mediated phosphorylation of cyclin D1 redirects the protein from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. Our results support a model in which phosphorylation of cyclin D1 on Thr-286 by GSK-3β links processes governing cyclin D1 subcellular localization with its proteasomal degradation.
2,159 citations
Cites background from "Regulation of p53 stability by Mdm2..."
...p53 degradation depends on Mdm2 (Haupt et al. 1997; Kubbutat et al. 1997), which shuttles from the nucleus to the cytoplasm and appears to direct p53 to cytoplasmic proteasomes (Roth et al....
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TL;DR: Using purified DNA-dependent protein kinase (DNA-PK), it is demonstrated that phosphorylation of p53 at serine 15 and 37 impairs the ability of MDM2 to inhibit p53-dependent transactivation and provides a plausible mechanism by which the induction of p 53 can be modulated by DNA-PK in response to DNA damage.
2,143 citations
TL;DR: The data suggest that the MDM2 protein, which is induced by p53, functions as a ubiquitin ligase, E3, in human papillomavirus‐uninfected cells which do not have E6 protein.
1,962 citations
References
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TL;DR: It is proposed that the Mdm2-promoted degradation of p53 provides a new mechanism to ensure effective termination of the p53 signal.
Abstract: The p53 tumour-suppressor protein exerts antiproliferative effects, including growth arrest and apoptosis, in response to various types of stress. The activity of p53 is abrogated by mutations that occur frequently in tumours, as well as by several viral and cellular proteins. The Mdm2 oncoprotein is a potent inhibitor of p53. Mdm2 binds the transcriptional activation domain of p53 and blocks its ability to regulate target genes and to exert antiproliferative effects. On the other hand, p53 activates the expression of the mdm2 gene in an autoregulatory feedback loop. The interval between p53 activation and consequent Mdm2 accumulation defines a time window during which p53 exerts its effects. We now report that Mdm2 also promotes the rapid degradation of p53 under conditions in which p53 is otherwise stabilized. This effect of Mdm2 requires binding of p53; moreover, a small domain of p53, encompassing the Mdm2-binding site, confers Mdm2-dependent detstabilization upon heterologous proteins. Raised amounts of Mdm2 strongly repress mutant p53 accumulation in tumour-derived cells. During recovery from DNA damage, maximal Mdm2 induction coincides with rapid p53 loss. We propose that the Mdm2-promoted degradation of p53 provides a new mechanism to ensure effective termination of the p53 signal.
4,311 citations
TL;DR: It is demonstrated that the E6 proteins of the oncogenic HPVs that bind p53 stimulate the degradation of p53, which results in selective degradation of cellular proteins such as p53 with negative regulatory functions provides a novel mechanism of action for dominant-acting oncoproteins.
3,903 citations
TL;DR: A product of the mdm-2 oncogene forms a tight complex with the p53 protein, and the mDM-2oncogene can inhibit p53-mediated transactivation.
3,136 citations
TL;DR: The mdm-2 gene is shown here to contain a p53 DNA-binding site and a genetically responsive element such that expression of the mdm -2 gene can be regulated by the level of wild-type p53 protein.
Abstract: The p53 protein can bind to a set of specific DNA sequences, and this may activate the transcription of genes adjacent to these DNA elements. The mdm-2 gene is shown here to contain a p53 DNA-binding site and a genetically responsive element such that expression of the mdm-2 gene can be regulated by the level of wild-type p53 protein. The mdm-2 protein, in turn, can complex with p53 and decrease its ability to act as a positive transcription factor at the mdm-2 gene-responsive element. In this way, the mdm-2 gene is autoregulated. The p53 protein regulates the mdm-2 gene at the level of transcription, and the mdm-2 protein regulates the p53 protein at the level of its activity. This creates a feedback loop that regulates both the activity of the p53 protein and the expression of the mdm-2 gene.
1,816 citations
TL;DR: Lactacystin appears to modify covalently the highly conserved amino-terminal threonine of the mammalian proteasome subunit X (also called MB1), a close homolog of the LMP7 proteasom subunit encoded by the major histocompatibility complex and may have a catalytic role.
Abstract: Lactacystin is a Streptomyces metabolite that inhibits cell cycle progression and induces neurite outgrowth in a murine neuroblastoma cell line. Tritium-labeled lactacystin was used to identify the 20S proteasome as its specific cellular target. Three distinct peptidase activities of this enzyme complex (trypsin-like, chymotrypsin-like, and peptidylglutamyl-peptide hydrolyzing activities) were inhibited by lactacystin, the first two irreversibly and all at different rates. None of five other proteases were inhibited, and the ability of lactacystin analogs to inhibit cell cycle progression and induce neurite outgrowth correlated with their ability to inhibit the proteasome. Lactacystin appears to modify covalently the highly conserved amino-terminal threonine of the mammalian proteasome subunit X (also called MB1), a close homolog of the LMP7 proteasome subunit encoded by the major histocompatibility complex. This threonine residue may therefore have a catalytic role, and subunit X/MB1 may be a core component of an amino-terminal-threonine protease activity of the proteasome.
1,598 citations