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Journal ArticleDOI

Revenge Porn and Mental Health: A Qualitative Analysis of the Mental Health Effects of Revenge Porn on Female Survivors

01 Jan 2017-Feminist Criminology (SAGE Publications)-Vol. 12, Iss: 1, pp 22-42
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examined the emotional and mental health effects of revenge pornography on female survivors, revealing the seriousness of revenge porn, the devastating impacts it has on survivors' mental health, and similarities between revenge porn and sexual assault.
Abstract: This study examines the emotional and mental health effects revenge porn has on female survivors. To date, no other academic studies have exclusively focused on mental health effects in revenge porn cases. In-depth qualitative interviews were conducted between February 2014 and January 2015 with 18 female revenge porn survivors, and inductive analysis revealed participants’ experiences of trust issues, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anxiety, depression, suicidal thoughts, and several other mental health effects. These findings reveal the seriousness of revenge porn, the devastating impacts it has on survivors’ mental health, and similarities between revenge porn and sexual assault.
Citations
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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors argue that image-based sexual abuse is on a continuum with other forms of sexual violence and suggest that this twin approach may enable a more comprehensive legislative and policy response that, in turn, will better reflect the harms to victim-survivors and lead to more appropriate and effective educative and preventative strategies.
Abstract: In the last few years, many countries have introduced laws combating the phenomenon colloquially known as ‘revenge porn’. While new laws criminalising this practice represent a positive step forwards, the legislative response has been piecemeal and typically focuses only on the practices of vengeful ex-partners. Drawing on Liz Kelly’s (Surviving sexual violence. Polity Press, Cambridge, 1988) pioneering work, we suggest that ‘revenge porn’ should be understood as just one form of a range of gendered, sexualised forms of abuse which have common characteristics, forming what we are conceptualising as the ‘continuum of image-based sexual abuse’. Further, we argue that image-based sexual abuse is on a continuum with other forms of sexual violence. We suggest that this twin approach may enable a more comprehensive legislative and policy response that, in turn, will better reflect the harms to victim-survivors and lead to more appropriate and effective educative and preventative strategies.

194 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors argue that the individual harms of physical and mental illness, together with the loss of dignity, privacy and sexual autonomy, combine to constitute a form of cultural harm that impacts directly on individuals, as well as on society as a whole.
Abstract: Advances in technology have transformed and expanded the ways in which sexual violence can be perpetrated. One new manifestation of such violence is the non-consensual creation and/or distribution of private sexual images: what we conceptualise as ‘image-based sexual abuse’. This article delineates the scope of this new concept and identifies the individual and collective harms it engenders. We argue that the individual harms of physical and mental illness, together with the loss of dignity, privacy and sexual autonomy, combine to constitute a form of cultural harm that impacts directly on individuals, as well as on society as a whole. While recognising the limits of law, we conclude by considering the options for redress and the role of law, seeking to justify the deployment of the expressive and coercive powers of criminal and civil law as a means of encouraging cultural change.

149 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors define the term "technology facilitated coercive control" (TFCC) to encompass the technological and relational aspects of patterns of abuse against intimate partners, and propose four key directions for a TFCC research agenda that recognises and asks new questions about the role of digital media platforms as both facilitators of abuse and potential partners in TFCC prevention and intervention.
Abstract: This article describes domestic violence as a key context of online misogyny, foregrounding the role of digital media in mediating, coordinating, and regulating it; and proposing an agenda for future research. Scholars and anti-violence advocates have documented the ways digital media exacerbate existing patterns of gendered violence and introduce new modes of abuse, a trend highlighted by this special issue. We propose the term "technology facilitated coercive control" (TFCC) to encompass the technological and relational aspects of patterns of abuse against intimate partners. Our definition of TFCC is grounded in the understanding of domestic violence (DV) as coercive, controlling, and profoundly contextualised in relationship dynamics, cultural norms, and structural inequality. We situate TFCC within the multiple affordances and modes of governance of digital media platforms for amplifying and ameliorating abuse. In addition to investigating TFCC, scholars are beginning to document the ways platforms can engender counter-misogynistic discourse, and are powerful actors for positive change via the regulation and governance of online abuse. Accordingly, we propose four key directions for a TFCC research agenda that recognises and asks new questions about the role of digital media platforms as both facilitators of abuse and potential partners in TFCC prevention and intervention.

129 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors synthesize the current literature regarding revenge pornography and the nonconsensual sharing of sexually explicit media and make a systematic search of five databases using relevant search terms.

127 citations


Cites background or methods from "Revenge Porn and Mental Health: A Q..."

  • ...The research by Bates (2017) is an important starting point to this literature, however we need to develop this knowledge within numerous populations and also to understand what interventions are effective in supporting victims of these behaviors....

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  • ...The above body of research will provide tangible evidence of this link (proposed by Bates, 2017; Henry & Powell, 2015a; McGlynn & Rackley, 2016) and therefore policy and legislative developments will need to acknowledge this link in the future....

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  • ...Bates (2017) interviewed 18 female survivors, who had experienced a broad range of incidents from widespread web release of naked photos, to photos shared on a smaller scale (e.g., social circle), to those being blackmailed and threatened....

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  • ...Revenge pornography therefore leaves those who experience it feeling the same way that sexual assault survivors feel after their experience of victimization, leading Bates (2017) to conclude that revenge pornography should be classified criminally as a sexual offense....

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  • ...Using inductive analysis, Bates (2017) found that the negative impact on individuals’ mental health included: trust issues; PTSD, anxiety and depression; and destroyed self-esteem and confidence and loss of control....

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Journal ArticleDOI
Sarah Sobieraj1
TL;DR: In this paper, a lens to think through the prominent patterns in digital sexism, showing that aggressors draw upon three overlapping strategies ( intimidating, shaming, and discrediting) to limit women's impact in digital publics, and the way femininity and femaleness are used to undermine women's contributions.
Abstract: Resistance to women’s public voice and visibility via street harassment and workplace sexual harassment have long constrained women’s use of and comfort in physical public spaces; this gender-based resistance now extends into digital arenas. Women face extreme hostility in the form of digital sexism in discussion rooms, comment sections, gaming communities, and on social media platforms. Reflecting on two years of in-depth interviews with women who have been on the receiving end of gender-based digital abuse (n = 38), conversations with industry professionals working in content moderation and digital safety, the extant literature, and news stories about digital attacks against women, I offer a lens to think through the prominent patterns in digital sexism, showing (1) that aggressors draw upon three overlapping strategies – intimidating, shaming, and discrediting – to limit women’s impact in digital publics, (2) the way femininity and femaleness are used to undermine women’s contributions, and (3)...

71 citations


Cites background from "Revenge Porn and Mental Health: A Q..."

  • ...Digital sexism has cost victims their jobs, forced them to move, jeopardized their mental health, placed them at risk of physical violence, and caused irreparable social damage (Barak, 2005; Bates, 2017; Citron, 2014)....

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References
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Book
05 Mar 2009
TL;DR: This chapter discusses writing Analytic Memos About Narrative and Visual Data and exercises for Coding and Qualitative Data Analytic Skill Development.
Abstract: An Introduction to Codes and Coding Chapter Summary Purposes of the Manual What Is a Code? Codifying and Categorizing What Gets Coded? The Mechanics of Coding The Numbers of Codes Manual and CAQDAS Coding Solo and Team Coding Necessary Personal Attributes for Coding On Method Writing Analytic Memos Chapter Summary The Purposes of Analytic Memo-Writing What Is an Analytic Memo? Examples of Analytic Memos Coding and Categorizing Analytic Memos Grounded Theory and Its Coding Canon Analytic Memos on Visual Data First-Cycle Coding Methods Chapter Summary The Coding Cycles Selecting the Appropriate Coding Method(s) Overview of First-Cycle Coding Methods The Coding Methods Profiles Grammatical Methods Elemental Methods Affective Methods Literary and Language Methods Exploratory Methods Forms for Additional First-Cycle Coding Methods Theming the Data Procedural Methods After First-Cycle Coding Chapter Summary Post-Coding Transitions Eclectic Coding Code Mapping and Landscaping Operational Model Diagramming Additional Transition Methods Transitioning to Second-Cycle Coding Methods Second-Cycle Coding Methods Chapter Summary The Goals of Second-Cycle Methods Overview of Second-Cycle Coding Methods Second-Cycle Coding Methods Forms for Additional Second-Cycle Coding Methods After Second-Cycle Coding Chapter Summary Post-Coding and Pre-Writing Transitions Focusing Strategies From Coding to Theorizing Formatting Matters Writing about Coding Ordering and Re-Ordering Assistance from Others Closure Appendix A: A Glossary of Coding Methods Appendix B: A Glossary of Analytic Recommendations Appendix C: Field Note, Interview Transcript and Document Samples for Coding Appendix D: Exercises and Activities for Coding and Qualitative Data Analytic Skill Development References Index

22,890 citations


"Revenge Porn and Mental Health: A Q..." refers methods in this paper

  • ...This coding method helps researchers sort through their data to understand the basic components of the information they have collected (Saldaña, 2012)....

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  • ...Descriptive Coding, also called Topic Coding, involves summarizing small sections of data with a word or a short phrase (Saldaña, 2012)....

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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Examination of rape victims' experiences seeking postassault assistance from the legal, medical, and mental health systems and how those interactions impact their psychological well-being suggests that for many victims, postassault help seeking becomes a "second rape," a secondary victimization to the initial trauma.
Abstract: This review article examines rape victims' experiences seeking postassault assistance from the legal, medical, and mental health systems and how those interactions impact their psychological well-being. This literature suggests that although some rape victims have positive, helpful experiences with social system personnel, for many victims, postassault help seeking becomes a "second rape," a secondary victimization to the initial trauma. Most reported rapes are not prosecuted, victims treated in hospital emergency departments do not receive comprehensive medical care, and many victims do not have access to quality mental health services. In response to growing concerns about the community response to rape, new interventions and programs have emerged that seek to improve services and prevent secondary victimization. The contributions of rape crisis centers, restorative justice programs, and sexual assault nurse examiner programs are examined. Strategies for creating more visible and impactful roles for psychologists and allied professionals are also discussed.

309 citations


"Revenge Porn and Mental Health: A Q..." refers background in this paper

  • ...Social systems in the community frequently treat stranger-rape as more serious than acquaintance-rape, which does a disservice to survivors as most sexual assaults are committed by acquaintances (Campbell, 2008)....

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  • ...As mentioned above, participants in the present study experienced a variety of negative mental health effects that sexual assault survivors also experience (Boeschen et al., 2001; Campbell, 2008; Littleton & Henderson, 2009; Monroe et al., 2005)....

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  • ...Sexual assault survivors commonly experience numerous mental health issues, such as PTSD, depression, anxiety, self-blame, substance abuse, and denial/avoidance (Campbell, 2008; Cohen & Roth, 1987; Kilpatrick & Acierno, 2003)....

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  • ...Law enforcement officials frequently discourage sexual assault survivors from making official reports, graphically describing the grueling legal processes involved in prosecuting rape cases (Campbell, 2008)....

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  • ...These coping mechanisms are commonly found among rape survivors as well (Boeschen et al., 2001; Campbell, 2008)....

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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Longitudinal data were collected from female sexual assault survivors and hierarchical linear modeling analyses revealed that changes in perceived control were associated with changes in distress after linear change in distress over time was accounted for.
Abstract: Longitudinal data were collected from female sexual assault survivors (N = 171) at 4 points postassault. Consistent with the predictions of the temporal model (P. Frazier, M. Berman, & J. Steward, 2002), past, present, and future control were differentially related to posttrauma distress. Both personal past (behavioral self-blame) and vicarious past (rapist blame) control were associated with higher distress levels. In addition, the belief that future assaults are less likely was more strongly associated with lower distress levels than was future control. Present control (i.e., control over the recovery process) was most adaptive. Hierarchical linear modeling analyses revealed that changes in perceived control were associated with changes in distress after linear change in distress over time was accounted for.

290 citations


"Revenge Porn and Mental Health: A Q..." refers background in this paper

  • ...Frazier (2003) found that when sexual assault survivors perceived a loss of control, they experienced more distress and trauma....

    [...]

  • ...Furthermore, sexual assault survivors report that the loss of control over their bodies and their own sexual agency contributes to their feelings of stress, anxiety, and distress (Frazier, 2003)....

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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This paper reviews epidemiological estimates of criminal victimization derived largely from nationally based studies in the United States, and concludes that mental health outcomes of violence are documented, with conclusions drawing on both national and regionally specific studies.
Abstract: This paper reviews epidemiological estimates of criminal victimization derived largely from nationally based studies in the United States. Origins of conflicting rates and prevalences are explained in terms of varying methodology. Risk factors for victimization, including age, race, gender, and disability, are also outlined, and derived from both national and geographically limited U.S.-based studies. Finally, mental health outcomes of violence are documented, with conclusions drawing on both national and regionally specific studies. These outcomes focus on posttraumatic stress disorder, but also include depression, substance abuse, and panic.

276 citations


"Revenge Porn and Mental Health: A Q..." refers background in this paper

  • ...Sexual assault survivors commonly experience numerous mental health issues, such as PTSD, depression, anxiety, self-blame, substance abuse, and denial/avoidance (Campbell, 2008; Cohen & Roth, 1987; Kilpatrick & Acierno, 2003)....

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Journal ArticleDOI
Azy Barak1
TL;DR: In this article, the available information on sexual harassment in cyberspace, equates this phenomenon with what has been learned about sexual harassment offline, points to specific characteristics of online culture and technology that reinforce the behavior, and proposes ways of promoting prevention.
Abstract: Sexual harassment offline is a well-known, highly prevalent, extensively investigated, and intensively treated social problem. An accepted model classifies sexual harassment behaviors into the categories of gender harassment, unwanted sexual attention, and sexual coercion. Theory and research show that sexual harassment behavior occurs as a product of person × situation characteristics and has substantial personal and organizational costs. This article reviews the available information on sexual harassment in cyberspace, equates this phenomenon with what has been learned about sexual harassment offline, points to specific characteristics of online culture and technology that reinforce the behavior, and proposes ways of promoting prevention.

270 citations


"Revenge Porn and Mental Health: A Q..." refers background in this paper

  • ...Men may feel that because they cannot be identified when they write harassing comments online, there are no limitations to prevent them from making sexual comments they would not say to women in person (Barak, 2005)....

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