Review of passive imaging polarimetry for remote sensing applications
TL;DR: The foundations of passive imaging polarimetry, the phenomenological reasons for designing a polarimetric sensor, and the primary architectures that have been exploited for developing imaging polarimeters are discussed.
Abstract: Imaging polarimetry has emerged over the past three decades as a powerful tool to enhance the information available in a variety of remote sensing applications. We discuss the foundations of passive imaging polarimetry, the phenomenological reasons for designing a polarimetric sensor, and the primary architectures that have been exploited for developing imaging polarimeters. Considerations on imaging polarimeters such as calibration, optimization, and error performance are also discussed. We review many important sources and examples from the scientific literature.
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TL;DR: In this paper, surface plasmons are used to enable direct recording of spectral image cubes in a single exposure by texturing metal surfaces at the nanometre scale, and incoming light is converted to surface plasms and can then be separated according to wavelength and polarization, before being recoupled to light through subwavelength apertures that illuminate individual photodetector elements.
Abstract: Colour cameras mimic the human eye and record only a small part of the information contained in the incoming light. Modern image sensing techniques, which subdivide the light spectrally or record information about the polarization of the incoming light, can extract much more information for applications ranging from biological studies to remote sensing1,2,3,4,5. Spectral imaging techniques6 typically rely on filters or interferometers combined with scanning or subsampling to record a spectral image ‘cube’ (which has wavelength as a third dimension). This leads to inefficient use of the incoming light and/or long recording times. Here, we show that surface plasmons enable direct recording of spectral image cubes in a single exposure. By texturing metal surfaces at the nanometre scale, incoming light is converted to surface plasmons and can then be separated according to wavelength and polarization, before being recoupled to light through subwavelength apertures that illuminate individual photodetector elements. This photon-sorting capability provides a new approach for spectral and polarimetric imaging with extremely compact device archictures.
426 citations
Cites background from "Review of passive imaging polarimet..."
...Among the myriad spectral and polarimetric imaging technique...
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TL;DR: The fundamental building blocks essential for the realization of metasurfaces are discussed in order to elucidate the underlying physics of various physical realizations of both plasmonic and purely dielectric metAsurfaces.
Abstract: In the wake of intense research on metamaterials the two-dimensional analogue, known as metasurfaces, has attracted progressively increasing attention in recent years due to the ease of fabrication and smaller insertion losses, while enabling an unprecedented control over spatial distributions of transmitted and reflected optical fields. Metasurfaces represent optically thin planar arrays of resonant subwavelength elements that can be arranged in a strictly or quasi periodic fashion, or even in an aperiodic manner, depending on targeted optical wavefronts to be molded with their help. This paper reviews a broad subclass of metasurfaces, viz. gradient metasurfaces, which are devised to exhibit spatially varying optical responses resulting in spatially varying amplitudes, phases and polarizations of scattered fields. Starting with introducing the concept of gradient metasurfaces, we present classification of different metasurfaces from the viewpoint of their responses, differentiating electrical-dipole, geometric, reflective and Huygens' metasurfaces. The fundamental building blocks essential for the realization of metasurfaces are then discussed in order to elucidate the underlying physics of various physical realizations of both plasmonic and purely dielectric metasurfaces. We then overview the main applications of gradient metasurfaces, including waveplates, flat lenses, spiral phase plates, broadband absorbers, color printing, holograms, polarimeters and surface wave couplers. The review is terminated with a short section on recently developed nonlinear metasurfaces, followed by the outlook presenting our view on possible future developments and perspectives for future applications.
417 citations
TL;DR: A formalism—matrix Fourier optics—for treating polarization in paraxial diffractive optics is introduced, a powerful generalization of a large body of past work on optical elements in which polarization may vary spatially.
Abstract: Recent developments have enabled the practical realization of optical elements in which the polarization of light may vary spatially. We present an extension of Fourier optics-matrix Fourier optics-for understanding these devices and apply it to the design and realization of metasurface gratings implementing arbitrary, parallel polarization analysis. We show how these gratings enable a compact, full-Stokes polarization camera without standard polarization optics. Our single-shot polarization camera requires no moving parts, specially patterned pixels, or conventional polarization optics and may enable the widespread adoption of polarization imaging in machine vision, remote sensing, and other areas.
410 citations
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...In the case of the fourelement Stokes vector, this necessitates four independent image acquisitions along independent polarization directions, whichmay be taken sequentially in time (“division-of-time,” limiting temporal resolution and often requiringmoving parts), by patterning a focal plane array with micropolarizers (“division-of-focal-plane,” requiring expensive fabrication, usually without offering full-Stokes vector determination, and mandating loss of photons to absorptive micropolarizer elements), or by simultaneous capture of the image along four paths each with independent polarization optics (“division-of-amplitude,” substantially increasing system bulk and complexity) (41)....
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TL;DR: In this article, a linear dichroic photodetection with a high photoresponsivity was proposed for light polarization detection using a few-layer ReS2 transistor with an n-type behavior with the mobility of about 40 cm2 V−1 s−1 and on/off ratio of 105.
Abstract: Due to the novel optical and optoelectronic properties, 2D materials have received increasing interests for optoelectronics applications. Discovering new properties and functionalities of 2D materials is challenging yet promising. Here broadband polarization sensitive photodetectors based on few layer ReS2 are demonstrated. The transistor based on few layer ReS2 shows an n-type behavior with the mobility of about 40 cm2 V−1 s−1 and on/off ratio of 105. The polarization dependence of photoresponse is ascribed to the unique anisotropic in-plane crystal structure, consistent with the optical absorption anisotropy. The linear dichroic photodetection with a high photoresponsivity reported here demonstrates a route to exploit the intrinsic anisotropy of 2D materials and the possibility to open up new ways for the applications of 2D materials for light polarization detection.
343 citations
TL;DR: The polarization imaging sensor has a signal-to-noise ratio of 45 dB and captures intensity, angle and degree of linear polarization in the visible spectrum at 40 frames per second with 300 mW of power consumption.
Abstract: We report an imaging sensor capable of recording the optical properties of partially polarized light by monolithically integrating aluminum nanowire optical filters with a CCD imaging array. The imaging sensor, composed of 1000 by 1000 imaging elements with 7.4 μm pixel pitch, is covered with an array of pixel-pitch matched nanowire optical filters with four different orientations offset by 45°. The polarization imaging sensor has a signal-to-noise ratio of 45 dB and captures intensity, angle and degree of linear polarization in the visible spectrum at 40 frames per second with 300 mW of power consumption.
338 citations
References
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TL;DR: In this paper, the effect of a plate of anisotropic material such as a crystal on a collimated beam of polarized light may always be represented mathematically as a linear transformation of the components of the electric vector of the light.
Abstract: The effect of a plate of anisotropic material, such as a crystal, on a collimated beam of polarized light may always be represented mathematically as a linear transformation of the components of the electric vector of the light. The effect of a retardation plate, of an anisotropic absorber (plate of tourmaline; Polaroid sheeting), or of a crystal or solution possessing optical activity, may therefore be represented as a matrix which operates on the electric vector of the incident light. Since a plane wave of light is characterized by the phases and amplitudes of the two transverse components of the electric vector, the matrices involved are two-by-two matrices, with matrix elements which are in general complex. A general theory of optical systems containing plates of the type mentioned is developed from this point of view.
1,706 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the general theory developed in Part I and the derivation of the matrices representing two optical elements which were not treated in Parts II and III are discussed. But the discussion is limited to monoclinic and triclinic crystals which do not possess optical activity.
Abstract: Part IV is divided into two sections. The first is devoted to some additions to the general theory developed in Part I, and the second section to the derivation of the matrices representing two optical elements which were not treated in Parts II and III: (1) plates possessing circular dichroism, and (2) plates cut from crystals of such low symmetry that the principal axes of absorption and refraction are not parallel. In case (2), the discussion is limited to monoclinic and triclinic crystals which do not possess optical activity.
1,316 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors decompose a Mueller matrix into a sequence of three matrix factors: a diattenuator, followed by a retarder, then followed by depolarizer.
Abstract: We present an algorithm that decomposes a Mueller matrix into a sequence of three matrix factors: a diattenuator, followed by a retarder, then followed by a depolarizer. Those factors are unique except for singular Mueller matrices. Based on this decomposition, the diattenuation and the retardance of a Mueller matrix can be defined and computed. Thus this algorithm is useful for performing data reduction upon experimentally determined Mueller matrices.
1,220 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the development of the polarization lidar technique is reviewed, and the current capabilities and limitations of the technique for the cloud research are discussed, as well as the current theoretical approaches involving ice crystal ray-tracing and cloud microphysical-model simulations are expected to increase the utility of the Lidar technique.
Abstract: The development of the polarization lidar technique is reviewed, and the current capabilities and limitations of the technique for the cloud research are discussed. At present, polarization lidar is a key component of climate-research programs designed to characterize the properties of cirrus clouds and is an integral part of multiple remote-sensor studies of mixed-phase cloud systems such as winter mountain storms, making it possible to discriminate between cloud phases and to identify some particle types and orientations. Recent theoretical approaches involving ice crystal ray-tracing and cloud microphysical-model simulations are expected to increase the utility of the polarization lidar technique.
524 citations
TL;DR: All 16 elements of the Mueller matrix of an optical system (sample) can be encoded onto, hence can be retrieved from, a single detected signal using a class of photopolarimeters with modulated polarizing and analyzing optics.
Abstract: All 16 elements of the Mueller matrix of an optical system (sample) can be encoded onto, hence can be retrieved from, a single detected signal using a class of photopolarimeters with modulated polarizing and analyzing optics. The general theory of operation of such polarimeters is presented. We also propose a specific new photopolarimeter whose polarizing and analyzing optics are modulated by synchronously rotating two quarter-wave retarders at angular speeds ω and 5ω. When the light flux leaving such polarimeter is linearly detected, a periodic signal J=a0+∑n=112(an cos nωft+bn sin nωft) is generated, with fundamental frequency ωf = 2ω. From the Fourier amplitudes a0, an, bn, to be measured by performing a discrete Fourier transform (DFT) of the signal ℐ, the 16 elements of the Mueller matrix are simply determined.
516 citations