Review of step-pool hydrodynamics in mountain streams:

doi:10.1177/0309133319859807

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Review of step-pool hydrodynamics in mountain streams:

Journal Article•DOI•

Review of step-pool hydrodynamics in mountain streams:

Sruthi Thazhathe Kalathil¹, Venu Chandra¹•Institutions (1)

Indian Institute of Technology Madras¹

24 Jun 2019-Vol. 43, Iss: 5, pp 607-626

TL;DR: In this paper, steppools are one of the major types of bed morphology prevalent in mountain streams and they have a unique flow structure as compared to low-gradient streams, in terms of large boundary elements and...

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Abstract: Step-pools are one of the major types of bed morphology prevalent in mountain streams. They have a unique flow structure as compared to low-gradient streams, in terms of large boundary elements and...

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Journal Article•DOI•

The role of infrequently mobile boulders in modulating landscape evolution and geomorphic hazards

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Charles M. Shobe¹, Charles M. Shobe², Jens M. Turowski², Ron Nativ³, Ron Nativ², Rachel C. Glade⁴, Georgina L. Bennett⁵, Benedetta Dini⁶ - Show less +4 more•Institutions (6)

West Virginia University¹, University of Potsdam², Ben-Gurion University of the Negev³, University of Rochester⁴, University of Exeter⁵, University of East Anglia⁶

01 Sep 2021-Earth-Science Reviews

TL;DR: In this paper, the authors review progress on five key questions related to how boulders influence the evolution of unglaciated, eroding landscapes: 1) What factors control boulder production on eroding hillslopes and the subsequent downslope evolution of the boulder size distribution.

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27 citations

Journal Article•

Step-Pool Streams: An Adjustment to Maximum Flow Resistance

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Athol D. Abrahams, Gang Li, Joseph F. Atkinson

01 Jan 1994-Hydraulic Engineering

TL;DR: In this paper, an experiment was conducted to study the maximum flow resistance of step pool streams and the morphology of the steps formed from clastic materials, and the step pool formation was qualitatively simulated to analyze numerically the formation process.

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Abstract: An experiment was conducted to study the maximum flow resistance of step pool streams and the morphology of the steps formed from clastic materials. The step pool formation was qualitatively simulated to analyze numerically the formation process. A flume 4.88 mm long and .15 m wide was used and flow velocity measurements were done by electronically timing passage of salt plume down the flume. Observations showed that the natural step pool streams arranged the morphology to maximize flow resistance.

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9 citations

Journal Article•DOI•

Energy Loss in Steep Open Channels with Step-Pools

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Suresh Kumar Thappeta¹, S. Murty Bhallamudi, Venu Chandra¹, Peter Fiener, Abul Basar M. Baki - Show less +1 more•Institutions (1)

Indian Institute of Technology Madras¹

31 Dec 2020-Water

TL;DR: In this paper, three-dimensional numerical simulations were performed for different flow rates and various geometrical parameters of step-pools in steep open channels to gain insight into the occurrence of energy loss and its dependence on the flow structure.

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Abstract: Three-dimensional numerical simulations were performed for different flow rates and various geometrical parameters of step-pools in steep open channels to gain insight into the occurrence of energy loss and its dependence on the flow structure. For a given channel with step-pools, energy loss varied only marginally with increasing flow rate in the nappe and transition flow regimes, while it increased in the skimming regime. Energy loss is positively correlated with the size of the recirculation zone, velocity in the recirculation zone and the vorticity. For the same flow rate, energy loss increased by 31.6% when the horizontal face inclination increased from 2° to 10°, while it decreased by 58.6% when the vertical face inclination increased from 40° to 70°. In a channel with several step-pools, cumulative energy loss is linearly related to the number of step-pools, for nappe and transition flows. However, it is a nonlinear function for skimming flows.

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9 citations

Equilibrium geomorphological conditions for high gradient bed streams

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A N Papanicolaou, A R Maxwell

01 Jan 2000

TL;DR: In this article, the authors identify the flow conditions under which stable bedforms exist; provide the geometric characteristics of these bedforms; measure the magnitude of the streamwise velocity and energy dissipation factor; and determine the friction factor under various flow conditions and gravel sizes.

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Abstract: The goal of this study was to identify the flow conditions under which stable bedforms exist; provide the geometric characteristics of these bedforms; measure the magnitude of the streamwise velocity and energy dissipation factor; and determine the friction factor under various flow conditions and gravel sizes. Design criteria and recommendations for stable bedforms were provided upon the termination of this research. Stable bedforms are defined as those bedforms of which the spatial characteristics (height and spacing) do not change with time. The focus of this study was on streams with slopes greater than 3%, as clear design requirements for bed geomorphologic stability are lacking for these cases, and they are of particular interest in the design and retrofit of culverts for both anadromous and resident migratory fish passage.

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2 citations

Journal Article•DOI•

Flow Resistance in Very Rough Channels

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Aurora Reid¹•Institutions (1)

ETH Zurich¹

01 Oct 2022-Water Resources Research

TL;DR: In this paper , the authors used a double-averaging approach to estimate the width, reach, and doubleaveraged variables for steady, uniform flow in an open channel, using an empirical model for the coefficient of form drag, and a flow resistance model that compares well to a large data set of flow velocity in natural channels.

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Abstract: Flow resistance in open channels determines the average flow velocity in a river, with important implications for downstream and at-a-station hydraulic geometry and sediment transport in natural channels. However, flow resistance in steep mountain channels is challenging to understand and predict due to heterogeneous channel morphology and spatially variable flow. Using a double-averaging approach appropriate for very rough channels, the width, reach, and double-averaged variables for steady, uniform flow in an open channel are derived. Using an empirical model for the coefficient of form drag, a flow resistance model is derived that compares well to a large data set of flow velocity in natural channels. Several parameters that together describe bed morphology are observed to be relatively consistent in the data set used and compare well to previous estimates of their values. This implies a degree of self-organization in bed morphology that may simplify the challenging problem of predicting flow resistance in steep mountain rivers.

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1 citations

References

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Book•

Energy Dissipators and Hydraulic Jump

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Willi H. Hager

29 Feb 1992

TL;DR: In this paper, a classical hydraulic jump in non-rectangular channel is described, followed by a submerged hydraulic jump using a bucket-type energy dissipator and a baffle rock.

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Abstract: Part 1: Hydraulic Jump 1 Introduction 2 Classical Hydraulic Jump 3 Sloping Jump 4 Hydraulic Jump in Non-Rectangular Channel 5 Submerged Hydraulic Jump References Part 1 Notation Part 1 Part 2: Stilling Basins 6 Introduction 7 Steps and Sills 8 Baffle Rock 9 Effect of Roughness and Discharge 10 Expanding Channel 11 Bucket-type Energy Dissipator 12 Various Aspects of Stilling Basins 13 Types of Stilling Basins 14 Experiences with Stilling Basins References Part 2 Notation Part 2 Subject Index Author Index

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269 citations

Journal Article•DOI•

Evaluation of flow resistance in gravel‐bed rivers through a large field data set

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Dieter Rickenmann, Alain Recking

01 Jul 2011-Water Resources Research

TL;DR: In this paper, a data set of 2890 field measurements was used to test the ability of several conventional flow resistance equations to predict mean flow velocity in gravel bed rivers when used with no calibration.

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Abstract: [1] A data set of 2890 field measurements was used to test the ability of several conventional flow resistance equations to predict mean flow velocity in gravel bed rivers when used with no calibration. The tests were performed using both flow depth and discharge as input since discharge may be a more reliable measure of flow conditions in shallow flows. Generally better predictions are obtained when using flow discharge as input. The results indicate that the Manning-Strickler and the Keulegan equations show considerable disagreement with observed flow velocities for flow depths smaller than 10 times the characteristic grain diameter. Most equations show some systematic deviation for small relative flow depth. The use of new definitions for dimensionless variables in terms of nondimensional hydraulic geometry equations allows the development of a new flow resistance equation. The best overall performance is obtained by the Ferguson approach, which combines two power law flow resistance equations that are different for deep and shallow flows. To use this approach with flow discharge as input, a logarithmic matching equation in terms of the new dimensionless variables is proposed. For the domains of intermediate and large-scale roughness, the field data indicate a considerable increase in flow resistance as compared with the domain of small-scale roughness. The Ferguson approach is used to discuss the importance of flow resistance partitioning for bed load transport calculations at flow conditions with intermediate- and large-scale roughness in natural gravel, cobble, and boulder bed streams.

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253 citations

"Review of step-pool hydrodynamics i..." refers background or methods in this paper

...Rickenmann and Recking (2011) also provided an explicit form of the VPE equation by applying the logarithmic matching technique, which maintained less than 1% error with the initial VPE equation: u ¼ 1:443ðq Þ0:60 1þ q 43:78 0:8214" # 0:2435 ð13Þ Adding on to the two-component approach in flow…...
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...This Sr corresponds to the loss in energy due to the base-level resistance (f0), as defined by Rickenmann and Recking (2011), such that Sr ¼ Sð ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi f0=f p Þe, where the value of e ranges from 1 to 1.5 (Chiari and Rickenmann, 2011)....
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...…the variation of ðf0=f Þ0:5 using different resistance equations and reported that it either increased with an increase in relative flow depth (Rickenmann and Recking, 2011; Whittaker et al., 1988; Yager, 2006) or retained an almost constant value regardless of relative flow depth (Egashira…...
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...The typical bedload equations overestimate the bedload volume by up to three orders of magnitude (Bathurst et al., 1987; Chiari and Rickenmann, 2011; Lenzi et al., 1999; Rickenmann, 2001, 2012; Rickenmann and Recking, 2011)....
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...…and sediment transport mechanism of step-pools in mountain streams has been conducted (Chin, 2002; Chin and Wohl, 2005; Church and Zimmermann, 2007; Comiti et al., 2009; Kammerlander et al., 2017; Meier and Reichert, 2005; Okasaki et al., 2006; Rickenmann and Recking, 2011; Yochum et al., 2012)....
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Journal Article•DOI•

Calculating bed load transport in steep boulder bed channels

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Elowyn M. Yager¹, Elowyn M. Yager², James W. Kirchner², William E. Dietrich²•Institutions (2)

Arizona State University¹, University of California, Berkeley²

01 Jul 2007-Water Resources Research

TL;DR: In this article, the authors modify a conventional bed load transport equation to account for the effects of local sediment availability (coverage by mobile sediment) and drag due to rarely mobile particles.

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Abstract: [1] Steep, rough channels occupy a large fraction of the total channel length in mountainous regions. Most sediment mobilized on hillslopes must pass through these streams before reaching lower-gradient channels. Steep channels have wide grain size distributions that are composed of finer, more mobile sediment and large, rarely mobile grains. The large grains can bear a significant portion of the total shear stress and thereby reduce the stress available to move the finer sediment. Conventional bed load transport equations often overpredict the sediment flux in steep channels by several orders of magnitude. We hypothesize that sediment transport equations overpredict the sediment flux because they do not (1) account for the stress borne by rarely mobile grains, (2) differentiate between highly and rarely mobile sediment, and (3) account for the limited availability of mobile sediment. Here we modify a conventional bed load transport equation to include these three effects. We use measurements of the flow, bed properties, and sediment flux in a small, steep flume to test this equation. We supply gravel at a constant rate through fields of regularly spaced immobile spheres and measure the bed coverage by gravel and sphere protrusion (the percent of the sphere that protrudes above the gravel deposit). For a given sphere spacing, the proportion of the bed covered by gravel increases and the sphere protrusion decreases with greater sediment supply. Thus bed coverage and immobile grain protrusion may serve as proxies for sediment availability in steep, rough streams. Unlike most transport equations that we tested, our modified bed load equation predicts sediment fluxes to within an order of magnitude of the measured values. Our results demonstrate that accurately predicting bed load transport in steep, rough streams may require accounting for the effects of local sediment availability (coverage by mobile sediment) and drag due to rarely mobile particles.

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250 citations

"Review of step-pool hydrodynamics i..." refers background in this paper

...Further, mountain streams also display a spatiotemporal variation in bed morphology, hydrodynamics and sediment flux (Comiti and Mao, 2012; Yager et al., 2007)....
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Journal Article•DOI•

Large woody debris and flow resistance in step-pool channels, Cascade Range, Washington

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Janet H. Curran¹, Ellen Wohl¹•Institutions (1)

Colorado State University¹

20 Mar 2003-Geomorphology

TL;DR: In this paper, the authors measured the Darcy-Weisbach flow resistance in 20 step-pool channels with large woody debris (LWD) in Washington, and found that wood in step risers influences channel hydraulics more than wood elsewhere in the channel.

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246 citations

"Review of step-pool hydrodynamics i..." refers background or methods in this paper

...S ¼ Sf 0 þ Sf 00 ð16Þ The grain roughness coefficient f 0 was calculated using equation (2) from Keulegan (1938), by substituting ks ¼ D50 or as a suitable multiplier of D84 to allow for the presence of form roughness (Bathurst, 1985; Bray, 1979; Comiti et al., 2007; Curran and Wohl, 2003; David et al., 2011; Ferguson, 2007; Hey, 1979; Thompson and Campbell, 1979)....
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...Using a dimensionless hydraulic geometry approach, as discussed previously, Comiti et al. (2009) generated separate equations for flow velocity under nappe (equation (18a)) and skimming flow regimes (equation (18b)): u ¼ 1:18ðq Þ0:82 ð18aÞ u ¼ 1:10ðq Þ0:38 ð18bÞ It was found that grain resistance in the nappe flow regime accounted for <5–15%, while in skimming flows, it was up to 45%....
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...The standard parameters identified for developing flow resistance equations in step-pools include a measure of discharge (unit discharge, flow depth or hydraulic radius in the case of narrow channels), characteristic grain size and average bed slope (Aberle and Smart, 2003; Comiti et al., 2007; Lee and Ferguson, 2002)....
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...Much research regarding the origin, bed morphology, flow velocity, flow resistance and sediment transport mechanism of step-pools in mountain streams has been conducted (Chin, 2002; Chin and Wohl, 2005; Church and Zimmermann, 2007; Comiti et al., 2009; Kammerlander et al., 2017; Meier and Reichert, 2005; Okasaki et al., 2006; Rickenmann and Recking, 2011; Yochum et al., 2012)....
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...…using equation (2) from Keulegan (1938), by substituting ks ¼ D50 or as a suitable multiplier of D84 to allow for the presence of form roughness (Bathurst, 1985; Bray, 1979; Comiti et al., 2007; Curran and Wohl, 2003; David et al., 2011; Ferguson, 2007; Hey, 1979; Thompson and Campbell, 1979)....
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Journal Article•DOI•

Step-Pool Streams: Adjustment to Maximum Flow Resistance

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Athol D. Abrahams, Gang Li, Joseph F. Atkinson

01 Oct 1995-Water Resources Research

TL;DR: In this article, a conceptual model is developed based on the notion that the largest floods are just capable of moving the largest debris in the channel, and the model suggests that step pools evolve toward a condition of maximum flow resistance because maximum resistance implies maximum stability.

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Abstract: Steep headwater streams are often characterized by alternating steps and pools, which may be described by mean step height and mean step length . A conceptual model is developed based on the notion that the largest floods are just capable of moving the largest debris in the channel. The model suggests that step pools evolve toward a condition of maximum flow resistance because maximum resistance implies maximum stability and that this condition is achieved when steps are regularly spaced and the mean step steepness is slightly greater than the channel slope S. To test this conceptual model, four series of flume experiments were performed. These experiments show that the relation between resistance to flow and is convex upward with maximum flow resistance occurring when steps are regularly spaced and have values between 1 and 2. Field measurements reveal that 18 natural step-pool streams also satisfy the inequality , strongly suggesting that the form of such streams is adjusted to maximize resistance to flow. The results of the flume experiments are inconsistent with the proposition that step pools form as antidunes, as Froude numbers for the flume step pools at which flow resistance was maximized fall well below those values usually associated with these bed forms.

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245 citations

"Review of step-pool hydrodynamics i..." refers methods in this paper

...Abrahams et al. (1995) coined step steepness as the ratio between step height (H) and step spacing (L), which provides maximum resistance to step-pools when 1Sb H/L 2Sb. Terms such as jamming ratio and aspect ratio have been considered to incorporate a crossstream parameter into the equations....
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