Roadmap on organic–inorganic hybrid perovskite semiconductors and devices
University of Konstanz1, University of Würzburg2, University of Cologne3, University of Duisburg-Essen4, University of Oxford5, TUM Institute for Advanced Study6, University of Tübingen7, Dresden University of Technology8, University of Regensburg9, Technische Universität München10, Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin11, University of Oldenburg12, University of Stuttgart13, University of Luxembourg14, University of Potsdam15, Fraunhofer Society16, University of Freiburg17, University of Bayreuth18, Technische Universität Darmstadt19, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg20, Technical University of Berlin21, University of Wuppertal22, Max Planck Society23, Princeton University24, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich25, University of Rome Tor Vergata26, National University of Science and Technology27, Fritz Haber Institute of the Max Planck Society28, Humboldt University of Berlin29
TL;DR: In this article, a comprehensive overview of perovskite semiconductors is presented and an informed perspective of where this field is heading and what challenges we have to overcome to get to successful commercialization.
Abstract: Metal halide perovskites are the first solution processed semiconductors that can compete in their functionality with conventional semiconductors, such as silicon. Over the past several years, perovskite semiconductors have reported breakthroughs in various optoelectronic devices, such as solar cells, photodetectors, light emitting and memory devices, and so on. Until now, perovskite semiconductors face challenges regarding their stability, reproducibility, and toxicity. In this Roadmap, we combine the expertise of chemistry, physics, and device engineering from leading experts in the perovskite research community to focus on the fundamental material properties, the fabrication methods, characterization and photophysical properties, perovskite devices, and current challenges in this field. We develop a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art and offer readers an informed perspective of where this field is heading and what challenges we have to overcome to get to successful commercialization.
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TL;DR: In this article, a review of solution-processed perovskite solar cells (PSCs) in the lab-scale has reached an incredible level of 25.5%.
Abstract: In the last decade, the power conversion efficiency (PCE) of solution-processed perovskite solar cells (PSCs) in the lab-scale has reached an incredible level of 25.5%. Generally, PSCs are composed of a stack consisting of a perovskite thin-film sandwiched between an electron transporting layer (ETL) and a hole transporting layer (HTL). Although the quality of the ETL and HTL interfaces with the perovskite thin-film is important, the quality of the perovskite thin-film is also critical to achieving high-performance PSCs. Low-temperature deposition of organic–inorganic perovskite thin-films by simple solution processes is one of the significant advantages of PSCs compared to other well-developed semiconductors for manufacturing solar cells. However, growing highly uniform and crystalline solution-processed perovskite thin-films is very challenging due to multiple phenomena during film formation, including solvent evaporation, wetting effects, inhomogeneous film stress and uncontrolled nucleation and growth. Therefore, understanding the different stages of perovskite crystallization is critical for achieving high-quality films and realizing higher PCEs. On the other hand, switching to large-scale solar modules leads to a substantial loss in performance, decreasing the chance of commercialization of this technology. Therefore, developing large-scale deposition techniques for reliable perovskite crystallization is very vital for scaling up PSCs. So far, several solution-processed methods such as anti-solvent and two-step processes have been developed for lab-scale perovskite thin-films deposition. However, these methods are not applicable for large-scale perovskite deposition. This review explores various scalable solution-processed perovskite deposition techniques. Moreover, different solvent quenching techniques as the most critical step of large-scale perovskite crystallization are discussed to provide a comprehensive view for achieving high-quality perovskite thin-films with large areas. Finally, the existing challenges and opportunities to push forward the commercialization of PSCs are discussed.
56 citations
TL;DR: In this article , the phase stability of lead-halide perovskites and the reproducibility of the device performance can be improved by A-site cation alloying with two or more species, these are named mixed cation (double, triple, or quadruple) perovsites.
Abstract: Over the past few years, lead‐halide perovskites (LHPs), both in the form of bulk thin films and colloidal nanocrystals (NCs), have revolutionized the field of optoelectronics, emerging at the forefront of next‐generation optoelectronics. The power conversion efficiency (PCE) of halide perovskite solar cells has increased from 3.8% to over 25.7% over a short period of time and is very close to the theoretical limit (33.7%). At the same time, the external quantum efficiency (EQE) of perovskite LEDs has surpassed 23% and 20% for green and red emitters, respectively. Despite great progress in device efficiencies, the photoactive phase instability of perovskites is one of the major concerns for the long‐term stability of the devices and is limiting their transition to commercialization. In this regard, researchers have found that the phase stability of LHPs and the reproducibility of the device performance can be improved by A‐site cation alloying with two or more species, these are named mixed cation (double, triple, or quadruple) perovskites. This review provides a state‐of‐the‐art overview of different types of mixed A‐site cation bulk perovskite thin films and colloidal NCs reported in the literature, along with a discussion of their synthesis, properties, and progress in solar cells and LEDs.
30 citations
TL;DR: In this article , a facile internal packaging interface strategy is developed, where a selective light-cured cross-linking molecule is leveraged to effectively heal the interface defects over perovskite films.
Abstract: Flexible perovskite solar cells possess huge application potential in both outdoor (sunlight) and indoor scenes (artificial low light) owing to their high optoelectronic conversion efficiency and agile integration advantages. In order to further establish their feasibility to meet multi‐scenario applications, here a facile “internal packaging” interface strategy is developed, where a selective light‐cured cross‐linking molecule is leveraged to effectively heal the interface defects over perovskite films. Moreover, the cross‐linked interfacial layer can act as an airtight “protective wall”, preventing the device from water and oxygen corrosion and lead leakage. The flexible devices aided by this strategy show considerable performance ranging from small size to scalable modules (20.86%‐0.07 cm2, 16.75%‐24 cm2). More importantly, the optimal devices yield excellent moisture resistance, light soaking resistance, and lead leakage prevention stability. Based on the common light source environment of indoor scenes, the excellence of flexible modules (30.73% under white light‐emitting diode (LED), 26.48% under yellow LED) is further validated. It is expected that this gentle strategy can underline simultaneous promoting of the efficiency and stability of flexible perovskite modules, thereby accelerating the application of flexible perovskite in advanced industrial fields.
17 citations
TL;DR: In this paper , the laser design of perovskite solar modules is optimized to reduce cell-to-module losses by establishing a relationship between geometrical fill factor, cell area width, and P1-P2-P3 laser parameters.
Abstract: The perovskite solar era has demonstrated 25.5% efficiency in only 10 years of research, reaching the performance levels of other photovoltaics technologies such as Si and GaAs, showing potentially low‐cost manufacturing and process versatility. However, these results are achieved only on small area cells, with an active area equal or lower to 0.1 cm2. The upscaling development of perovskite solar technology requires the use of additional processes to reduce losses encountered for large areas; for this reason, laser processing becomes necessary to design connected cells into modules. In this work, cell‐to‐module losses in perovskite solar modules are reduced by optimizing the laser design, establishing a relationship between geometrical fill factor, cell area width, and P1–P2–P3 laser parameters. Upscaling the process from 2.5 × 2.5 to 10 × 10 cm2 an efficiency of 18.71% and 17.79% is achieved on active area of 2.25 and 48 cm2 respectively, with only 5% relative losses when scaling from to minimodule to module size. A minipanel is fabricated on 20 × 20 cm2, showing 11.9% stabilized efficiency and 2.3 W on an active area of 192 cm2, among the highest reported in literature so far at this size.
16 citations
TL;DR: In this paper , the main principles of different tuning approaches are specified and an overview of relevant concepts of tunable solar cells (SC) technologies is presented, and the recent integrations of cutting-edge tunable PV adapted to versatile applications are systematically summarized.
Abstract: Solar photovoltaics (PV) offer viable and sustainable solutions to satisfy the growing energy demand and to meet the pressing climate targets. The deployment of conventional PV technologies is one of the major contributors of the ongoing energy transition in electricity power sector. However, the diversity of PV paradigms can open different opportunities for supplying modern systems in a wide range of terrestrial, marine, and aerospace applications. Such ubiquitous and versatile applications necessitate the development of PV technologies with customized design capabilities. This involves multifunctional characteristics such as aesthetic appearance, visual comfort, and heat insulation. To enable on‐demand adaptation to the requirements of distributed applications, tunable solar cells (SC) feature exceptional degrees of freedom in the manipulation of their intrinsic properties via adjusted materials engineering. The pertinent tuning abilities include but are not limited to bandgap energy, transparency, color, and thermal management. In this review, the main principles of different tuning approaches are specified and an overview of relevant concepts of tunable SC technologies is presented. Then, the recent integrations of cutting‐edge tunable PV adapted to versatile applications are systematically summarized. In addition, current challenges and insightful perspectives into potential future opportunities for omnipresent tunable PV are discussed.
15 citations
References
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TL;DR: This paper presents a meta-modelling procedure called "Continuum Methods within MD and MC Simulations 3072", which automates the very labor-intensive and therefore time-heavy and expensive process of integrating discrete and continuous components into a discrete-time model.
Abstract: 6.2.2. Definition of Effective Properties 3064 6.3. Response Properties to Magnetic Fields 3066 6.3.1. Nuclear Shielding 3066 6.3.2. Indirect Spin−Spin Coupling 3067 6.3.3. EPR Parameters 3068 6.4. Properties of Chiral Systems 3069 6.4.1. Electronic Circular Dichroism (ECD) 3069 6.4.2. Optical Rotation (OR) 3069 6.4.3. VCD and VROA 3070 7. Continuum and Discrete Models 3071 7.1. Continuum Methods within MD and MC Simulations 3072
13,286 citations
TL;DR: In this article, an upper theoretical limit for the efficiency of p−n junction solar energy converters, called the detailed balance limit of efficiency, has been calculated for an ideal case in which the only recombination mechanism of holeelectron pairs is radiative as required by the principle of detailed balance.
Abstract: In order to find an upper theoretical limit for the efficiency of p‐n junction solar energy converters, a limiting efficiency, called the detailed balance limit of efficiency, has been calculated for an ideal case in which the only recombination mechanism of hole‐electron pairs is radiative as required by the principle of detailed balance. The efficiency is also calculated for the case in which radiative recombination is only a fixed fraction fc of the total recombination, the rest being nonradiative. Efficiencies at the matched loads have been calculated with band gap and fc as parameters, the sun and cell being assumed to be blackbodies with temperatures of 6000°K and 300°K, respectively. The maximum efficiency is found to be 30% for an energy gap of 1.1 ev and fc = 1. Actual junctions do not obey the predicted current‐voltage relationship, and reasons for the difference and its relevance to efficiency are discussed.
11,071 citations
TL;DR: A low-cost, solution-processable solar cell, based on a highly crystalline perovskite absorber with intense visible to near-infrared absorptivity, that has a power conversion efficiency of 10.9% in a single-junction device under simulated full sunlight is reported.
Abstract: The energy costs associated with separating tightly bound excitons (photoinduced electron-hole pairs) and extracting free charges from highly disordered low-mobility networks represent fundamental losses for many low-cost photovoltaic technologies. We report a low-cost, solution-processable solar cell, based on a highly crystalline perovskite absorber with intense visible to near-infrared absorptivity, that has a power conversion efficiency of 10.9% in a single-junction device under simulated full sunlight. This "meso-superstructured solar cell" exhibits exceptionally few fundamental energy losses; it can generate open-circuit photovoltages of more than 1.1 volts, despite the relatively narrow absorber band gap of 1.55 electron volts. The functionality arises from the use of mesoporous alumina as an inert scaffold that structures the absorber and forces electrons to reside in and be transported through the perovskite.
9,158 citations
TL;DR: A sequential deposition method for the formation of the perovskite pigment within the porous metal oxide film that greatly increases the reproducibility of their performance and allows the fabrication of solid-state mesoscopic solar cells with unprecedented power conversion efficiencies and high stability.
Abstract: Following pioneering work, solution-processable organic-inorganic hybrid perovskites-such as CH3NH3PbX3 (X = Cl, Br, I)-have attracted attention as light-harvesting materials for mesoscopic solar cells. So far, the perovskite pigment has been deposited in a single step onto mesoporous metal oxide films using a mixture of PbX2 and CH3NH3X in a common solvent. However, the uncontrolled precipitation of the perovskite produces large morphological variations, resulting in a wide spread of photovoltaic performance in the resulting devices, which hampers the prospects for practical applications. Here we describe a sequential deposition method for the formation of the perovskite pigment within the porous metal oxide film. PbI2 is first introduced from solution into a nanoporous titanium dioxide film and subsequently transformed into the perovskite by exposing it to a solution of CH3NH3I. We find that the conversion occurs within the nanoporous host as soon as the two components come into contact, permitting much better control over the perovskite morphology than is possible with the previously employed route. Using this technique for the fabrication of solid-state mesoscopic solar cells greatly increases the reproducibility of their performance and allows us to achieve a power conversion efficiency of approximately 15 per cent (measured under standard AM1.5G test conditions on solar zenith angle, solar light intensity and cell temperature). This two-step method should provide new opportunities for the fabrication of solution-processed photovoltaic cells with unprecedented power conversion efficiencies and high stability equal to or even greater than those of today's best thin-film photovoltaic devices.
8,427 citations
TL;DR: In this article, transient absorption and photoluminescence-quenching measurements were performed to determine the electron-hole diffusion lengths, diffusion constants, and lifetimes in mixed halide and triiodide perovskite absorbers.
Abstract: Organic-inorganic perovskites have shown promise as high-performance absorbers in solar cells, first as a coating on a mesoporous metal oxide scaffold and more recently as a solid layer in planar heterojunction architectures. Here, we report transient absorption and photoluminescence-quenching measurements to determine the electron-hole diffusion lengths, diffusion constants, and lifetimes in mixed halide (CH3NH3PbI(3-x)Cl(x)) and triiodide (CH3NH3PbI3) perovskite absorbers. We found that the diffusion lengths are greater than 1 micrometer in the mixed halide perovskite, which is an order of magnitude greater than the absorption depth. In contrast, the triiodide absorber has electron-hole diffusion lengths of ~100 nanometers. These results justify the high efficiency of planar heterojunction perovskite solar cells and identify a critical parameter to optimize for future perovskite absorber development.
8,199 citations