Scale-dependent relationships between tree species richness and ecosystem function in forests
Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute1, Forest Research Institute Malaysia2, Earthwatch Institute3, Chinese Academy of Sciences4, University of Florida5, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute6, Smithsonian Environmental Research Center7, Department of National Parks, Wildlife and Plant Conservation8, University of Queensland9, Environmental Change Institute10, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden11, Tunghai University12, University of Buea13, Indian Institute of Science14, Smithsonian Institution15, National University of Colombia16, University of Peradeniya17, University of Wisconsin–Green Bay18, National Taiwan University19, University of California, Los Angeles20, Osaka City University21, Thammasat University22, University of Montana23, Minzu University of China24, Utah State University25, Natural England26, University of Puerto Rico27, University of São Paulo28, University of Göttingen29, Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador30, University of Toronto31, National Dong Hwa University32, Oregon State University33, University of the Philippines Diliman34
TL;DR: This work focuses on forests, which represent a majority of global biomass, productivity and biodiversity, and investigates the relationship between species richness and ecosystem function as measured by productivity or biomass.
Abstract: 1. The relationship between species richness and ecosystem function, as measured by productivity or biomass, is of long-standing theoretical and practical interest in ecology. This is especially true for forests, which represent a majority of global biomass, productivity and biodiversity.
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Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute1, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute2, National Museum of Natural History3, University of Alabama4, Stanford University5, Wilfrid Laurier University6, Mahidol University7, Department of National Parks, Wildlife and Plant Conservation8, University of Aberdeen9, University of Queensland10, Environmental Change Institute11, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden12, University of Buea13, Indiana University14, United States Forest Service15, Indian Institute of Science16, Chinese Academy of Sciences17, National University of Colombia18, Forest Research Institute Malaysia19, University of California, Santa Cruz20, University of Peradeniya21, University of Hong Kong22, University of Alberta23, Oak Ridge National Laboratory24, University of Wisconsin–Green Bay25, University of California, Los Angeles26, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources27, Wageningen University and Research Centre28, Kyoto University29, University of Nairobi30, Wildlife Conservation Society31, University of Montana32, Nanyang Technological University33, Utah State University34, Smithsonian Environmental Research Center35, Centre national de la recherche scientifique36, Natural England37, Washington University in St. Louis38, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic39, University of São Paulo40, University of the Philippines Diliman41, Harvard University42, University of Hawaii at Hilo43, Maejo University44, National Dong Hwa University45, University of Toronto46, Washington State University Vancouver47, University of Puerto Rico, Río Piedras48, Columbia University49, Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador50, National Institute of Amazonian Research51, East China Normal University52, University of Minnesota53
TL;DR: The broad suite of measurements made at CTFS-ForestGEO sites makes it possible to investigate the complex ways in which global change is impacting forest dynamics, and continued monitoring will provide vital contributions to understanding worldwide forest diversity and dynamics in an era of global change.
Abstract: Global change is impacting forests worldwide, threatening biodiversity and ecosystem services including climate regulation. Understanding how forests respond is critical to forest conservation and climate protection. This review describes an international network of 59 long-term forest dynamics research sites (CTFS-ForestGEO) useful for characterizing forest responses to global change. Within very large plots (median size 25ha), all stems 1cm diameter are identified to species, mapped, and regularly recensused according to standardized protocols. CTFS-ForestGEO spans 25 degrees S-61 degrees N latitude, is generally representative of the range of bioclimatic, edaphic, and topographic conditions experienced by forests worldwide, and is the only forest monitoring network that applies a standardized protocol to each of the world's major forest biomes. Supplementary standardized measurements at subsets of the sites provide additional information on plants, animals, and ecosystem and environmental variables. CTFS-ForestGEO sites are experiencing multifaceted anthropogenic global change pressures including warming (average 0.61 degrees C), changes in precipitation (up to +/- 30% change), atmospheric deposition of nitrogen and sulfur compounds (up to 3.8g Nm(-2)yr(-1) and 3.1g Sm(-2)yr(-1)), and forest fragmentation in the surrounding landscape (up to 88% reduced tree cover within 5km). The broad suite of measurements made at CTFS-ForestGEO sites makes it possible to investigate the complex ways in which global change is impacting forest dynamics. Ongoing research across the CTFS-ForestGEO network is yielding insights into how and why the forests are changing, and continued monitoring will provide vital contributions to understanding worldwide forest diversity and dynamics in an era of global change.
470 citations
Cites background from "Scale-dependent relationships betwe..."
...Characterize spatial variation in biomass within sites in relation to environmental gradients and species diversity (Valencia et al., 2009; Chisholm et al., 2013); detect directional changes in C stocks (Chave et al., 2008; Muller-Landau et al., 2014); calibrate and evaluate models of biomass based…...
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...Characterize spatial variation in biomass within sites in relation to environmental gradients and species diversity (Valencia et al., 2009; Chisholm et al., 2013); detect directional changes in C stocks (Chave et al....
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...The network applies a unique standardized tree census protocol across all of the world’s major forest biomes, allowing comparison across sites (e.g., Condit, 2000; Muller-Landau et al., 2006a,b; Chave et al., 2008; Chisholm et al., 2013, 2014)....
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TL;DR: This review examines how spatial and temporal differences in resource availability or climatic conditions can influence these interactions between species and how these interactions influence the growth of mixtures.
405 citations
Wageningen University and Research Centre1, University of Puerto Rico, Río Piedras2, National Autonomous University of Mexico3, Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research4, National Institute of Amazonian Research5, Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária6, University of Amsterdam7, Santa Fe Institute8, University of Arizona9, Universidade Federal de Viçosa10, Universidad del Tolima11, Bangor University12, University of São Paulo13, University of Connecticut14, Alexander von Humboldt Biological Resources Research Institute15, World Agroforestry Centre16, Federal University of Alagoas17, Utrecht University18, Naturalis19, University of Maryland, College Park20, Columbia University21, Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad22
TL;DR: In this article, the authors used a structural equation model to test the hypothesis that species richness, forest structural attributes and environmental drivers have independent, positive effects on aboveground biomass (AGB) and ecosystem functioning.
Abstract: Aim Tropical forests store 25% of global carbon and harbour 96% of the world's tree species, but it is not clear whether this high biodiversity matters for carbon storage. Few studies have teased apart the relative importance of forest attributes and environmental drivers for ecosystem functioning, and no such study exists for the tropics. Location Neotropics. Methods We relate aboveground biomass (AGB) to forest attributes (diversity and structure) and environmental drivers (annual rainfall and soil fertility) using data from 144,000 trees, 2050 forest plots and 59 forest sites. The sites span the complete latitudinal and climatic gradients in the lowland Neotropics, with rainfall ranging from 750 to 4350 mm year−1. Relationships were analysed within forest sites at scales of 0.1 and 1 ha and across forest sites along large-scale environmental gradients. We used a structural equation model to test the hypothesis that species richness, forest structural attributes and environmental drivers have independent, positive effects on AGB. Results Across sites, AGB was most strongly driven by rainfall, followed by average tree stem diameter and rarefied species richness, which all had positive effects on AGB. Our indicator of soil fertility (cation exchange capacity) had a negligible effect on AGB, perhaps because we used a global soil database. Taxonomic forest attributes (i.e. species richness, rarefied richness and Shannon diversity) had the strongest relationships with AGB at small spatial scales, where an additional species can still make a difference in terms of niche complementarity, while structural forest attributes (i.e. tree density and tree size) had strong relationships with AGB at all spatial scales. Main conclusions Biodiversity has an independent, positive effect on AGB and ecosystem functioning, not only in relatively simple temperate systems but also in structurally complex hyperdiverse tropical forests. Biodiversity conservation should therefore be a key component of the UN Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation strategy.
342 citations
Cites background from "Scale-dependent relationships betwe..."
...Chisholm et al. (2013) found for temperate and tropical forests that species richness and biomass were positively related within forest sites at small spatial scales (20 m × 20 m), probably because in a small area with relatively few species any additional species still matter for productivity and…...
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...Most empirical studies that have examined the effects of biodiversity on forest AGB or productivity have ignored the effect of forest structure (e.g. Gamfeldt et al., 2013), the environment (Cavanaugh et al., 2014) or both (Chisholm et al., 2013)....
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...Similarly, in a global analysis of larger forest plots (> 16 ha), Chisholm et al. (2013) also found that diversity–biomass relationships were always strong and positive at very small spatial scales (20 m × 20 m), whereas at larger spatial scales (0.25 and 1 ha) there was no consistent relationship....
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...These hypotheses about the relationship between species richness and productivity could also apply to standing biomass, as higher productivity may lead to faster accumulation of biomass, and productivity and biomass are therefore positively correlated in forests (Chisholm et al., 2013)....
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...AGB was calculated for plots of 0.1 and 1 ha, as the relationship between AGB and diversity is scale dependent (Chisholm et al., 2013)....
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03 Feb 2016
TL;DR: This review indicates that while the effects of tree-species diversity on growth and other forest functions are now receiving a lot of attention, far less is known about the effects on growth or forest functioning and direct measurements of the processes could greatly contribute to the understanding of structural diversity effects.
Abstract: Through complementarity interactions, mixed-species forests can be more productive than monocultures, and this effect can increase with tree-species richness. However, this is not always the case. This review examines the processes and stand structural attributes that can influence diversity-productivity relationships (DPRs); how they influence resource availability, resource uptake, and resource-use efficiency; and also describes some important differences between tree-diversity versus grassland-diversity experiments. The size of the complementarity effects caused by these processes and stand structures varies along spatial and temporal gradients in resource availability and climate. These spatial and temporal dynamics have now been examined in many studies, and the general patterns are summarized using a simple framework; complementarity is predicted to increase as the availability of resource “X” declines (or climatic condition X becomes harsher) if the species interactions improve the availability, uptake, or use efficiency of resource X (or interactions improve climatic condition X). Importantly, this framework differs from the stress-gradient hypothesis to account for a wider range of inter-specific plant interactions (not only facilitation) by considering contrasting methods used to quantify species interactions while accounting for stand structure. In addition, complementarity (as opposed to facilitation) for a given species combination can increase as growing conditions improve in forests, contrary to predictions of the stress-gradient hypothesis with regards to facilitation. This review indicates that while the effects of tree-species diversity on growth and other forest functions are now receiving a lot of attention, far less is known about the effects of structural diversity on growth or forest functioning. Direct measurements of the processes, as opposed to focusing mainly on growth responses, could greatly contribute to our understanding of structural diversity effects.
340 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors identified key issues including relationships between biodiversity and ecosystem function as a foundation of ecological integrity, resilience thinking to better prepare for and adapt to environmental changes, social-ecological perspectives that facilitate real-world conservation and management and theory-driven restoration that bridges science and practice.
Abstract: Summary
Given the substantial contributions of forest biodiversity and ecosystem services to society, forest sciences have a large potential to contribute to the integrity and sustainability of our future. This is especially true when the roles of biodiversity for sustaining ecosystem services are considered.
The rapid expansion of sustainable forest management (SFM) has resulted in the adoption of various forest management frameworks intended to safeguard biodiversity. Concurrently, the importance of forest ecosystem services has been increasingly recognized. Although some initiatives aimed at conserving both biodiversity and ecosystem services are emerging, knowledge gaps still exist about their relationships and potential trade-offs in forests. Given recent advancements, increasing opportunities and some lags in forest ecology, further research on biodiversity, ecosystem functions and services will play substantial roles in the development of SFM practices.
Here, we identified key issues including (i) relationships between biodiversity and ecosystem function as a foundation of ecological integrity, (ii) resilience thinking to better prepare for and adapt to environmental changes, (iii) social–ecological perspectives that facilitate real-world conservation and management and (iv) theory-driven restoration that bridges science and practice. Thus, we illustrate priorities and future possibilities in applied ecology studies in forests, which will help society and ecosystems to build capacity and resilience to face uncertainty in the changing environment.
Synthesis and applications. Under substantial human influences, forests are highly likely to be largely altered, potentially leading to the emergence of novel ecosystems or alternative stable states. Management thus needs more flexible, novel measures to address the significant uncertainty this generates. Resilience-based approaches are important to respond adaptively to future changes and cope with surprises, potentially providing multiple options. Although challenges exist, theory should play an important role in managing, conserving and restoring forest ecosystems. The issues discussed here should receive further attention in the context of the multiple goals of sustainable forest management.
275 citations
References
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TL;DR: In this paper, the authors apply additive mixed modelling on phyoplankton time series data and show that the additive model can be used to estimate the age distribution of small cetaceans.
Abstract: Limitations of linear regression applied on ecological data. - Things are not always linear additive modelling. - Dealing with hetergeneity. - Mixed modelling for nested data. - Violation of independence - temporal data. - Violation of independence spatial data. - Generalised linear modelling and generalised additive modelling. - Generalised estimation equations. - GLMM and GAMM. - Estimating trends for Antarctic birds in relation to climate change. - Large-scale impacts of land-use change in a Scottish farming catchment. - Negative binomial GAM and GAMM to analyse amphibian road killings. - Additive mixed modelling applied on deep-sea plagic bioluminescent organisms. - Additive mixed modelling applied on phyoplankton time series data. - Mixed modelling applied on American Fouldbrood affecting honey bees larvae. - Three-way nested data for age determination techniques applied to small cetaceans. - GLMM applied on the spatial distribution of koalas in a fragmented landscape. - GEE and GLMM applied on binomial Badger activity data.
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"Scale-dependent relationships betwe..." refers methods in this paper
...We used a maximum likelihood method rather than a restricted maximum likelihood method because we wanted to compare the separate models with Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) and because we did not need to estimate variance components (Zuur et al. 2009)....
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TL;DR: In this paper, the authors present plant strategies in the established phase and the regenerative phase in the emerging phase, respectively, and discuss the relationship between the two phases: primary strategies and secondary strategies.
Abstract: PLANT STRATEGIES. Primary Strategies in the Established Phase. Secondary Strategies in the Established Phase. Regenerative Strategies. VEGETATION PROCESSES. Dominance. Succession. Co-Existence. References. Index.
5,687 citations
United States Department of Agriculture1, Peking University2, Chinese Academy of Sciences3, Woods Hole Research Center4, University of Helsinki5, Natural Resources Canada6, University of Leeds7, International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis8, Centre national de la recherche scientifique9, Duke University10, Princeton University11, University of Alaska Fairbanks12, Oak Ridge National Laboratory13
TL;DR: The total forest sink estimate is equivalent in magnitude to the terrestrial sink deduced from fossil fuel emissions and land-use change sources minus ocean and atmospheric sinks, with tropical estimates having the largest uncertainties.
Abstract: The terrestrial carbon sink has been large in recent decades, but its size and location remain uncertain. Using forest inventory data and long-term ecosystem carbon studies, we estimate a total forest sink of 2.4 ± 0.4 petagrams of carbon per year (Pg C year–1) globally for 1990 to 2007. We also estimate a source of 1.3 ± 0.7 Pg C year–1 from tropical land-use change, consisting of a gross tropical deforestation emission of 2.9 ± 0.5 Pg C year–1 partially compensated by a carbon sink in tropical forest regrowth of 1.6 ± 0.5 Pg C year–1. Together, the fluxes comprise a net global forest sink of 1.1 ± 0.8 Pg C year–1, with tropical estimates having the largest uncertainties. Our total forest sink estimate is equivalent in magnitude to the terrestrial sink deduced from fossil fuel emissions and land-use change sources minus ocean and atmospheric sinks.
4,948 citations
"Scale-dependent relationships betwe..." refers background in this paper
...Forest carbon storage is of particular concern because globally forests hold more carbon than the atmosphere (Pan et al. 2011), and management of these carbon stores is an important tool for mitigating global climate change....
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TL;DR: The principles of ecological succession bear importantly on the relationships between man and nature and needs to be examined as a basis for resolving man’s present environmental crisis.
Abstract: The principles of ecological succession bear importantly on the relationships between man and nature. The framework of successional theory needs to be examined as a basis for resolving man’s present environmental crisis. Most ideas pertaining to the development of ecological systems are based on descriptive data obtained by observing changes in biotic communities over long periods, or on highly theoretical assumptions; very few of the generally accepted hypotheses have been tested experimentally. Some of the confusion, vagueness, and lack of experimental work in this area stems from the tendency of ecologists to regard “succession” as a single straightforward idea; in actual fact, it entails an interacting complex of processes, some of which counteract one another.
4,419 citations
"Scale-dependent relationships betwe..." refers background in this paper
...…relationship between species richness and ecosystem function is motivated by both a basic interest in understanding ecological communities (Pianka 1966; Odum 1969; Tilman et al. 1997) and a practical need to conserve and manage ecosystem services (Schwartz et al. 2000; Srivastava & Vellend 2005)....
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...Research into the relationship between species richness and ecosystem function is motivated by both a basic interest in understanding ecological communities (Pianka 1966; Odum 1969; Tilman et al. 1997) and a practical need to conserve and manage ecosystem services (Schwartz et al....
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TL;DR: Any event that increases the efficiency of the predators at eating seeds and seedlings of a given tree species may lead to a reduction in population density of the adults of that species and/or to increased distance between new adults and their parents.
Abstract: A high number of tree species, low density of adults of each species, and long distances between conspecific adults are characteristic of many low-land tropical forest habitats. I propose that these three traits, in large part, are the result of the action of predators on seeds and seedlings. A model is presented that allows detailed examination of the effect of different predators, dispersal agents, seed-crop sizes, etc. on these three traits. In short, any event that increases the efficiency of the predators at eating seeds and seedlings of a given tree species may lead to a reduction in population density of the adults of that species and/or to increased distance between new adults and their parents. Either event will lead to more space in the habitat for other species of trees, and therefore higher total number of tree species, provided seed sources are available over evolutionary time. As one moves from the wet lowland tropics to the dry tropics or temperate zones, the seed and seedling predators in ...
4,267 citations
"Scale-dependent relationships betwe..." refers background in this paper
...…to increases in a species’ performance as local abundance of conspecifics decreases and thus to better overall communitylevel performance, that is, higher productivity, when there are more species and fewer individuals per species (Janzen 1970; Connell 1971; Comita et al. 2010; Mangan et al. 2010)....
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...Niche complementarity occurs because niches, such as differences in resource-use or enemy-defence strategies, lead to increases in a species’ performance as local abundance of conspecifics decreases and thus to better overall communitylevel performance, that is, higher productivity, when there are more species and fewer individuals per species (Janzen 1970; Connell 1971; Comita et al. 2010; Mangan et al. 2010)....
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