Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioral change.
TL;DR: An integrative theoretical framework to explain and to predict psychological changes achieved by different modes of treatment is presented and findings are reported from microanalyses of enactive, vicarious, and emotive mode of treatment that support the hypothesized relationship between perceived self-efficacy and behavioral changes.
Abstract: The present article presents an integrative theoretical framework to explain and to predict psychological changes achieved by different modes of treatment. This theory states that psychological procedures, whatever their form, alter the level and strength of self-efficacy. It is hypothesized that expectations of personal efficacy determine whether coping behavior will be initiated, how much effort will be expended, and how long it will be sustained in the face of obstacles and aversive experiences. Persistence in activities that are subjectively threatening but in fact relatively safe produces, through experiences of mastery, further enhancement of self-efficacy and corresponding reductions in defensive behavior. In the proposed model, expectations of personal efficacy are derived from four principal sources of information: performance accomplishments, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and physiological states. The more dependable the experiential sources, the greater are the changes in perceived selfefficacy. A number of factors are identified as influencing the cognitive processing of efficacy information arising from enactive, vicarious, exhortative, and emotive sources. The differential power of diverse therapeutic procedures is analyzed in terms of the postulated cognitive mechanism of operation. Findings are reported from microanalyses of enactive, vicarious, and emotive modes of treatment that support the hypothesized relationship between perceived self-efficacy and behavioral changes. Possible directions for further research are discussed.
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TL;DR: This article developed a model that delineates antecedents of and responses to the interpretation of a market situation and used case-scenario methodology to test the model in the context of a marketing decision with data collected from a nationwide sample of hospital marketing executives.
Abstract: Improving marketing decision making requires a better understanding of the factors that influence how managers interpret and respond to a market situation. Building on extant literature, the authors develop a model that delineates antecedents of and responses to the interpretation of a market situation. Using case-scenario methodology, the authors test the model in the context of a marketing decision (annual advertising and promotion budget recommendation) with data collected from a nationwide sample of hospital marketing executives. The results of the partial least squares analysis show that (1) cognitive style, organizational culture, and information use affect the extent to which managers perceive a given market situation as one in which they can control the outcomes of their decision; (2) the more managers perceive a situation as controllable, the more they appraise that situation as an opportunity; and (3) the more managers appraise a situation as an opportunity, the greater is the magnitude...
399 citations
Cites background from "Self-efficacy: toward a unifying th..."
...…a given situation as less controllable and as one in which outcomes are a matter of chance, they are likely to experience negative emotions (Bandura 1977; Folkman and Lazarus 1985), set low goals (Schunk 1990), perceive the situation as one with negative implications (i.e., a threat), and…...
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...When managers perceive that they can control the outcomes of a decision, they are more likely to experience positive emotions (Bandura 1977; Folkman and Lazarus 1985), the situation they are faced with seems more attractive (Taylor 1989; Walsh, Henderson, and Deighton 1988), and they may be more…...
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...Reducing uncertainty and increasing confidence are especially important because they increase perceived competence, which is a key factor is assessing ability to control an ambiguous situation (Bandura 1977, 1989; Skinner 1995)....
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01 May 2007
TL;DR: The authors traces the development of the problem of consciousness in Western philosophy from the time of the ancient Greeks to the middle of the 20th century, focusing on the nature of subjectivity.
Abstract: This chapter traces the development of the problem of consciousness in Western philosophy from the time of the ancient Greeks to the middle of the 20th century. The core problem of consciousness focuses on the nature of subjectivity. The chapter focuses on what has become the central issue in consciousness studies, which is the problem of integrating subjectivity into the scientific view of the world. The mainstream view has not long been mainstream, for the problem of consciousness cannot strike one at all until a fairly advanced scientific understanding of the world permits development of the materialism presupposed by the mainstream view. It was the scientific revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries that forced the problem of the Christian dogma into prominence. In philosophy, the 1950s saw the beginning of a self-conscious effort to understand the mind and, eventually, consciousness as physical through and through in essentially scientific terms.
398 citations
Cites background from "Self-efficacy: toward a unifying th..."
...Another major determinant of people's metacognitive judgments is their perceived self efficacy (Bandura, 1977)....
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TL;DR: The question of equivalence between psychotherapy and clinical outcomes has been investigated extensively in the literature as discussed by the authors, with the conclusion that psychotherapy is more effective than clinical outcomes of different therapies.
Abstract: Despite clear demonstrations by process researchers of systematic differences in therapists' techniques, most reviews of psychotherapy outcome research show little or no differential effectiveness of different psychotherapies. This contradiction presents a dilemma to researchers and practitioners. Numerous possible solutions have been suggested. Some of these challenge the apparent equivalence of outcome, arguing that differential results could be revealed by more sensitive reviewing procedures or by more differentiated outcome measures. Others challenge the seeming differences among treatments, arguing that, despite superficial technical diversity, all or most therapies share a common core of therapeutic processes. Still others suggest that the question of equivalence is unanswerable as it is usually posed but that differential effectiveness of specific techniques might be found at the leve ! of brief events within therapy sessions. In spite of their diversity, many of the proposed solutions converge in calling for greater precision and specificity of theory and method in psychotherapy research. Despite the ple thora of purpor tedly distinct psychotherapeutic t rea tments (Parloff, 1976, 1984), influential reviews of comparat ive outcome research (Luborsky, Singer, & Luborsky, 1975; Smith, Glass, & Miller, i 980) together with frequently cited studies (e.g., Sloane, Staples, Cristol, Yorkston, & Whipple, 1975) appear to suppor t the conclusion that ou tcomes o f diverse therapies are generally similar. Efforts to base public policy r ecommenda t ions concerning menta l health care service provisions on scientific evidence have yielded only "a consensus, o f sorts, . . . on the question o f the efficacy of psychotherapy as a generic t r ea tment p r o c e s s . . , that psychotherapy is more effective than no t r ea tmen t " (VandenBos & Pino, 1980, p. 36). N o such consensus exists concerning the relative effectiveness of diverse therapies (e.g., DeLeon, VandenBos, & Cummings , 1983; Kiesler, 1985; Office of Technology Assessment, 1980). The verdict o f the Dodo bird in Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (Carroll, 1865/ 1962), used as a subtitle by Luborsky et al. (1975), "Eve rybody has won and all must have prizes," captures this si tuation mos t vividly x and invites the question o f our present title: "Are all psychotherapies equivalent?" The s ta tement that two (or more) therapies are equivalent could have three quite different meanings. The first is equivalence o f o u t c o m e t h a t t rea tments yield ou tcomes that cannot be distinguished (the " D o d o bird verdict"). The second is equivalence of c o n t e n t t h a t the behavior o f part icipants in different therapies cannot be distinguished. The third is equivalence o f m e c h a n i s m that different psychotherapies employ c o m m o n principles o f psychological change. In this article, we first delineate the apparen t paradox: the lack o f differential effectiveness contrasted with evident technical diversity, that is, ou tcome equivalence contrasted with content nonequivalence. We then consider the resolutions o f the paradox that have been put forward, along with the a rguments and evidence that have been adduced in their support . We believe that considering alongside one another the traditionally separated research domains of therapy process and ou tcome brings into clearer focus the current strategic issues for psychotherapy
397 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors investigated the degree to which interaction and other predictors contribute to student satisfaction in online learning settings and found that learner-instructor interaction, learner content interaction, and Internet self-efficacy were good predictors of student satisfaction.
Abstract: This paper is intended to investigate the degree to which interaction and other predictors contribute to student satisfaction in online learning settings. This was a preliminary study towards a dissertation work which involved the establishment of interaction and satisfaction scales through a content validity survey. Regression analysis was performed to determine the contribution of predictor variables to student satisfaction. The effects of student background variables on predictors were explored. The results showed that learner-instructor interaction, learner-content interaction, and Internet self-efficacy were good predictors of student satisfaction while interactions among students and self-regulated learning did not contribute to student satisfaction. Learner-content interaction explained the largest unique variance in student satisfaction. Additionally, gender, class level, and time spent online per week seemed to have influence on learner-learner interaction, Internet self-efficacy, and self-regulation.
397 citations
Cites background from "Self-efficacy: toward a unifying th..."
...Expanded from the self-efficacy theory in psychology (Bandura, 1977), researchers in education have indicated that efficacy beliefs positively influence achievement and persistence related to specific instructional tasks (Hodges, 2008; Pintrich & De Groot, 1990)....
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TL;DR: The Life Orientation Test is virtually indistinguishable from measures of neuroticism, and previously reported findings using this scale are perhaps more parsimoniously interpreted as reflecting neuroticism rather than optimism.
Abstract: Found in two studies that the Life Orientation Test (LOT) had limited discriminant validity relative to measures of neuroticism. Furthermore, although previous correlations of the LOT with measures of symptom reports and coping behaviors were replicated, these correlations were eliminated when neuroticism was controlled. In contrast, the correlations of symptoms and coping with neuroticism remained significant when LOT scores were controlled. Thus, the LOT is virtually indistinguishable from measures of neuroticism, and previously reported findings using this scale are perhaps more parsimoniously interpreted as reflecting neuroticism rather than optimism. These findings are discussed in terms of existing support for models of optimism and self-control and general methodological issues in studies of personality and health.
397 citations
References
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TL;DR: In this paper, the effects of reward or reinforcement on preceding behavior depend in part on whether the person perceives the reward as contingent on his own behavior or independent of it, and individuals may also differ in generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement.
Abstract: The effects of reward or reinforcement on preceding behavior depend in part on whether the person perceives the reward as contingent on his own behavior or independent of it. Acquisition and performance differ in situations perceived as determined by skill versus chance. Persons may also differ in generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. This report summarizes several experiments which define group differences in behavior when Ss perceive reinforcement as contingent on their behavior versus chance or experimenter control. The report also describes the development of tests of individual differences in a generalized belief in internal-external control and provides reliability, discriminant validity and normative data for 1 test, along with a description of the results of several studies of construct validity.
21,451 citations
TL;DR: In this article, an exploración de the avances contemporaneos en la teoria del aprendizaje social, con especial enfasis en los importantes roles que cumplen los procesos cognitivos, indirectos, and autoregulatorios.
Abstract: Una exploracion de los avances contemporaneos en la teoria del aprendizaje social, con especial enfasis en los importantes roles que cumplen los procesos cognitivos, indirectos, y autoregulatorios.
20,904 citations
TL;DR: Reading motivation reconsidered the concept of competence is also a way as one of the collective books that gives many advantages as a way to develop your experiences about everything.
6,452 citations
"Self-efficacy: toward a unifying th..." refers background in this paper
...In seeking a motivational explanation of exploratory and manipulative behavior, White (1959) postulated an "effectance motive," which is conceptualized as an intrinsic drive for transactions with the environment ....
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Book•
22 Jun 2011
TL;DR: The concept of competence is also a way as one of the collective books that gives many advantages as discussed by the authors, and the advantages are not only for you, but for the other peoples with those meaningful benefits.
Abstract: No wonder you activities are, reading will be always needed. It is not only to fulfil the duties that you need to finish in deadline time. Reading will encourage your mind and thoughts. Of course, reading will greatly develop your experiences about everything. Reading motivation reconsidered the concept of competence is also a way as one of the collective books that gives many advantages. The advantages are not only for you, but for the other peoples with those meaningful benefits.
5,245 citations
TL;DR: The problem of which cues, internal or external, permit a person to label and identify his own emotional state has been with us since the days that James (1890) first tendered his doctrine that "the bodily changes follow directly the perception of the exciting fact, and that our feeling of the same changes as they occur is the emotion" (p. 449) as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: The problem of which cues, internal or external, permit a person to label and identify his own emotional state has been with us since the days that James (1890) first tendered his doctrine that "the bodily changes follow directly the perception of the exciting fact, and that our feeling of the same changes as they occur is the emotion" (p. 449). Since we are aware of a variety of feeling and emotion states, it should follow from James' proposition that the various emotions will be accompanied by a variety of differentiable bodily states. Following James' pronouncement, a formidable number of studies were undertaken in search of the physiological differentiators of the emotions. The results, in these early days, were almost uniformly negative. All of the emotional states experi-
4,808 citations