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Journal Article•DOI•

Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioral change.

Albert Bandura1•
Stanford University1
01 Mar 1977-Psychological Review (American Psychological Association)-Vol. 84, Iss: 2, pp 191-215
TL;DR: An integrative theoretical framework to explain and to predict psychological changes achieved by different modes of treatment is presented and findings are reported from microanalyses of enactive, vicarious, and emotive mode of treatment that support the hypothesized relationship between perceived self-efficacy and behavioral changes.
Abstract: The present article presents an integrative theoretical framework to explain and to predict psychological changes achieved by different modes of treatment. This theory states that psychological procedures, whatever their form, alter the level and strength of self-efficacy. It is hypothesized that expectations of personal efficacy determine whether coping behavior will be initiated, how much effort will be expended, and how long it will be sustained in the face of obstacles and aversive experiences. Persistence in activities that are subjectively threatening but in fact relatively safe produces, through experiences of mastery, further enhancement of self-efficacy and corresponding reductions in defensive behavior. In the proposed model, expectations of personal efficacy are derived from four principal sources of information: performance accomplishments, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and physiological states. The more dependable the experiential sources, the greater are the changes in perceived selfefficacy. A number of factors are identified as influencing the cognitive processing of efficacy information arising from enactive, vicarious, exhortative, and emotive sources. The differential power of diverse therapeutic procedures is analyzed in terms of the postulated cognitive mechanism of operation. Findings are reported from microanalyses of enactive, vicarious, and emotive modes of treatment that support the hypothesized relationship between perceived self-efficacy and behavioral changes. Possible directions for further research are discussed.
Citations
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Journal Article•DOI•
The theory of planned behavior

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Icek Ajzen1•
University of Massachusetts Amherst1
01 Dec 1991-Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes
TL;DR: Ajzen, 1985, 1987, this article reviewed the theory of planned behavior and some unresolved issues and concluded that the theory is well supported by empirical evidence and that intention to perform behaviors of different kinds can be predicted with high accuracy from attitudes toward the behavior, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control; and these intentions, together with perceptions of behavioral control, account for considerable variance in actual behavior.

65,095 citations

Journal Article•DOI•
The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior

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Edward L. Deci1, Richard M. Ryan•
University of Rochester1
01 Jan 2000-Psychological Inquiry
TL;DR: Self-Determination Theory (SDT) as mentioned in this paper maintains that an understanding of human motivation requires a consideration of innate psychological needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness, emphasizing that needs specify the necessary conditions for psychological growth, integrity, and well-being.
Abstract: Self-determination theory (SDT) maintains that an understanding of human motivation requires a consideration of innate psychological needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness. We discuss the SDT concept of needs as it relates to previous need theories, emphasizing that needs specify the necessary conditions for psychological growth, integrity, and well-being. This concept of needs leads to the hypotheses that different regulatory processes underlying goal pursuits are differentially associated with effective functioning and well-being and also that different goal contents have different relations to the quality of behavior and mental health, specifically because different regulatory processes and different goal contents are associated with differing degrees of need satisfaction. Social contexts and individual differences that support satisfaction of the basic needs facilitate natural growth processes including intrinsically motivated behavior and integration of extrinsic motivations, whereas those that forestall autonomy, competence, or relatedness are associated with poorer motivation, performance, and well-being. We also discuss the relation of the psychological needs to cultural values, evolutionary processes, and other contemporary motivation theories.

20,832 citations

Cites background or result from "Self-efficacy: toward a unifying th..."

  • ...As for autonomy, Bandura (1989) stated that autonomy would be evident only if “humans serve as entirely independent agents of their own actions” (p....

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  • ...Social-learning theories, of which Bandura’s (1996) self-efficacy theory is currently the most popular, are examples of the so-called standard social science model (e.g., Tooby & Cosmides, 1992), for they view people’s behavioral repertoires and self-concepts as being largely acquired from the social world.Self-efficacy theory has focused specifically on the extent to which people feel capable of engaging in behaviors that will lead to desired outcomes (Bandura, 1977). Given their capacity to alter their environment, establish incentives, and create cognitive self-inducements, people can, Bandura (1989) argued, motivate themselves and be agentic....

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  • ...As for autonomy, Bandura (1989) stated that autonomy would be evident only if “humans serve as entirely independent agents of their own actions” (p. 1175), a characterization that allowed him to dismiss the concept out of hand. Clearly, this characterization bears no relation to the concept of autonomy contained in SDT and is inconsistent with the way the concept is treated by modern philosophers (e.g., Dworkin, 1988; Ricoeur, 1966). By using this characterization, self-efficacy theory has avoided dealing with the important human issue of autonomy. By contrast, other perceived control theories addressed the concept of autonomy and acknowledged that it cannot be reduced to perceived control (e.g., Little, Hawley, Henrich, & Marsland, in press; E. A. Skinner, 1995). In terms of our three needs, self-efficacy theory is concerned almost exclusively with competence, but the theory explicitly shuns White’s (1959) postulate of an innate effectance motivation....

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  • ...Social-learning theories, of which Bandura’s (1996) self-efficacy theory is currently the most popular, are examples of the so-called standard social science model (e....

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  • ...Self-efficacy theory has focused specifically on the extent to which people feel capable of engaging in behaviors that will lead to desired outcomes (Bandura, 1977)....

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Book Chapter•DOI•
From Intentions to Actions: A Theory of Planned Behavior

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Icek Ajzen
01 Jan 1985
TL;DR: There appears to be general agreement among social psychologists that most human behavior is goal-directed (e. g., Heider, 1958 ; Lewin, 1951), and human social behavior can best be described as following along lines of more or less well-formulated plans.
Abstract: There appears to be general agreement among social psychologists that most human behavior is goal-directed (e. g., Heider, 1958 ; Lewin, 1951). Being neither capricious nor frivolous, human social behavior can best be described as following along lines of more or less well-formulated plans. Before attending a concert, for example, a person may extend an invitation to a date, purchase tickets, change into proper attire, call a cab, collect the date, and proceed to the concert hall. Most, if not all, of these activities will have been designed in advance; their execution occurs as the plan unfolds. To be sure, a certain sequence of actions can become so habitual or routine that it is performed almost automatically, as in the case of driving from home to work or playing the piano. Highly developed skills of this kind typically no longer require conscious formulation of a behavioral plan. Nevertheless, at least in general outline, we are normally well aware of the actions required to attain a certain goal. Consider such a relatively routine behavior as typing a letter. When setting this activity as a goal, we anticipate the need to locate a typewriter, insert a sheet of paper, adjust the margins, formulate words and sentences, strike the appropriate keys, and so forth. Some parts of the plan are more routine, and require less conscious thought than others, but without an explicit or implicit plan to guide the required sequence of acts, no letter would get typed.

16,172 citations

Book Chapter•DOI•
Universals in the Content and Structure of Values: Theoretical Advances and Empirical Tests in 20 Countries

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Shalom H. Schwartz1•
Hebrew University of Jerusalem1
01 Jan 1992-Advances in Experimental Social Psychology
TL;DR: In this paper, the universals in the content and structure of values, concentrating on the theoretical advances and empirical tests in 20 countries, and its four basic issues: substantive contents of human values; identification of comprehensive set of values; extent to which the meaning of particular values was equivalent for different groups of people; and how the relations among different values was structured.
Abstract: Publisher Summary This chapter addresses the universals in the content and structure of values, concentrating on the theoretical advances and empirical tests in 20 countries, and its four basic issues: substantive contents of human values; identification of comprehensive set of values; extent to which the meaning of particular values was equivalent for different groups of people; and how the relations among different values was structured. Substantial progress has been made toward resolving each of these issues. Ten motivationally distinct value types that were likely to be recognized within and across cultures and used to form value priorities were identified. Set of value types that was relatively comprehensive, encompassing virtually all the types of values to which individuals attribute at least moderate importance as criteria of evaluation was demonstrated. The evidence from 20 countries was assembled, showing that the meaning of the value types and most of the single values that constitute them was reasonably equivalent across most groups. Two basic dimensions that organize value systems into an integrated motivational structure with consistent value conflicts and compatibilities were discovered. By identifying universal aspects of value content and structure, the chapter has laid the foundations for investigating culture-specific aspects in the future.

12,151 citations

Cites background from "Self-efficacy: toward a unifying th..."

  • ...Self-direction was derived from organismic needs for control and mastery (e.g., Bandura, 1977; Deci, 1975; White, 1959) and A world at peace interactional requirements of autonomy and independence (e.g., Kluckhohn, 1951; Kohn & Schooler, 1983; Morris, 1956)....

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Book•
Cognitive Therapy of Depression

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Steven D. Hollon1, Aaron T. Beck2•
Vanderbilt University1, University of Pennsylvania2
04 Dec 1979
TL;DR: Hollon and Shaw as discussed by the authors discuss the role of emotions in Cognitive Therapy and discuss the integration of homework into Cognitive Therapy, and discuss problems related to Termination and Relapse.
Abstract: 1. An Overview 2. The Role of Emotions in Cognitive Therapy 3. The Therapeutic Relationship: Application to Cognitive Therapy 4. Structure of the Therapeutic Interview 5. The Initial Interview 6. Session by Session Treatment: A Typical Course of Therapy 7. Application of Behavioral Techniques 8. Cognitive Techniques 9. Focus on Target Symptoms 10. Specific Techniques for the Suicidal Patient 11. Interview with a Depressed Suicidal Patient 12. Depressogenic Assumptions 13. Integration of Homework into Therapy 14. Technical Problems 15. Problems Related to Termination and Relapse 16. Group Cognitive Therapy for Depressed Patients Steven D. Hollon and Brian F. Shaw 17. Cognitive Therapy and Antidepressant Medications 18. Outcome Studies of Cognitive Therapy Appendix: Materials *The Beck Inventory *Scale for Suicide Ideation *Daily Record of Dysfunctional Thoughts *Competency Checklist for Cognitive Therapists *Possible Reasons for Not Doing Self-Help Assignments *Research Protocol for Outcome Study at Center for Cognitive Therapy *Further Materials and Technical Aids

9,970 citations

References
More filters
Journal Article•DOI•
Evaluation of research on expectancy theory predictions of employee performance.

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Herbert G. Heneman, Donald P. Schwab
01 Jul 1972-Psychological Bulletin

217 citations

"Self-efficacy: toward a unifying th..." refers background in this paper

  • ...With the ascendency of cognitive views of behavior, the concept of expectancy is assuming an increasingly prominent place in contemporary psychological thought (Bolles, 1972b; Heneman, & Schwab, 1972; Irwin, 1971)....

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Self-Reinforcement: Theoretical and Methodological Considerations

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Albert Bandura1•
Stanford University1
01 Jan 1976
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors discuss some major substantive issues in the conceptualization of self-reward and self-regulation, and discuss the need to consider other signifi cant determinants and processes, which can reinforce a truncated image of human nature.
Abstract: How behavior is viewed determines which facets of human functioning are studied most thoroughly and which are ignored or disavowed. Conceptions thus delimit research and are, in turn, shaped by findings from paradigms embodying that particular view. Theorists who exclude self-regulatory functions from their concept of human poten tialities restrict the scope of their research to external influences on behavior. Detailed analysis of behavior as a function of external consequences provides confirmatory evidence that behavior is indeed subject to external control. However, limiting the scope of scientific inquiry not only yields redundant results but, by disregarding other signifi cant determinants and processes, it can reinforce a truncated image of human nature. From the perspective of social learning theory (Bandura, 1976), people are seen as capable of exercising some control over their own behavior. Among the various self regulatory phenomena that have been investigated within this framework, self reinforcement occupies a prominent position. In this process, individuals regulate their behavior by making self-reward conditional upon matching self-prescribed standards of performance. Acknowledgement of self-regulatory processes has added a new dimen sion to experimental analyses of reinforcement. Results of such studies have provided the impetus for extending the range of reinforcement practices in programs designed to effect personal change. Interest was shifted from managing behavior through imposition of contingencies to developing skills in self-regulation. In the latter approach, control is vested to a large extent in the hands of individuals themselves: They set their own goals, they monitor and evaluate their own performances, and they serve as their own reinforc ing agents (Goldfried and Merbaum, 1973; Mahoney and Thoresen, 1974). The present paper discusses some major substantive issues in the conceptualization of self reinforcement.

201 citations

"Self-efficacy: toward a unifying th..." refers background in this paper

  • ...A second cognitively based source of motivation operates through the intervening influences of goal setting and self-evaluative reactions (Bandura, 1976b, 1977)....

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  • ...Through this form of treatment incapacitated people rapidly lose their fears, they are able to engage in activities they formerly inhibited, and they display generalized reductions of fears toward threats beyond the specifically treated conditions (Bandura, 1976a)....

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Journal Article•DOI•
The role of awareness in human differential autonomic classical conditioning: the necessary-gate hypothesis.

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Michael E. Dawson, John J. Furedy1•
University of Toronto1
01 Jan 1976-Psychophysiology
TL;DR: A “necessary-gate” hypothesis is proposed regarding the relationship between awareness of the CS-UCS relationship and autonomic classical conditioning, which is that awareness is a necessary but not sufficient condition, and a gate but not analog condition, for human differential autonomic Classical conditioning.
Abstract: A “necessary-gate” hypothesis is proposed regarding the relationship between awareness of the CS-UCS relationship and autonomic classical conditioning. The hypothesis is that awareness is a necessary but not sufficient condition, and a gate but not analog condition, for human differential autonomic classical conditioning. Evidence in support of the hypothesis is reviewed and directions for future research and theory development are suggested.

197 citations

"Self-efficacy: toward a unifying th..." refers background in this paper

  • ...People are not much affected by paired stimulation unless they recognize that the events are correlated (Dawson & Furedy, 1976; Grings, 1973)....

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Journal Article•DOI•
Covert modeling, model similarity, and reduction of avoidance behavior

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Alan E. Kazdin1•
Pennsylvania State University1
01 May 1974-Behavior Therapy
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors investigated the effect of covert modeling in reducing snake avoidance and found that the greatest vicarious learning tended to occur in subjects who imagined a model similar in fear-related and non-fear-related dimensions.

191 citations

"Self-efficacy: toward a unifying th..." refers background in this paper

  • ...In investigations of vicarious processes , observing one perform activities that meet with success does, indeed, produce greater behavioral improvements than witnessing the same performances modeled without any evident consequences (Kazdin, 1974c, 1975)....

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  • ...Diversified modeling, in which the activities observers regard as hazardous are repeatedly shown to be safe by a variety of models, is superior to exposure to the same performances by a single model (Bandura & Menlove, 1968; Kazdin, 1974a, 1975, 1976)....

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  • ...Similarity to the model in other characteristics, which increases the personal relevance of vicariously derived information, can likewise enhance the effectiveness of symbolic modeling (Kazdin, 1974b)....

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Journal Article•DOI•
Effects of instructions and reinforcement-feedback on human operant behavior maintained by fixed-interval reinforcement.

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Alan Baron1, Arnold Kaufman1, Kathleen A. Stauber1•
University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee1
01 Sep 1969-Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior
TL;DR: It was concluded that instructions can have major influences on the establishment and maintenance of human operant behavior.
Abstract: In three experiments, human subjects were trained on a five-component multiple schedule with different fixed intervals of monetary reinforcement scheduled in the different components. Subjects uninstructed about the fixed-interval schedules manifested high and generally equivalent rates regardless of the particular component. By comparison, subjects given instructions about the schedules showed orderly progressions of rates and temporal patterning as a function of the interreinforcement intervals, particularly when feedback about reinforcement was delivered but also when reinforcement-feedback was withheld. Administration of the instructions-reinforcement combination to subjects who had already developed poorly differentiated behavior, however, did not make their behavior substantially better differentiated. When cost was imposed for responding, both instructed and uninstructed subjects showed low and differentiated rates regardless of their prior histories. It was concluded that instructions can have major influences on the establishment and maintenance of human operant behavior.

181 citations

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Trending Questions (1)
What are the key components of a theory of change in mental health?

The key components of a theory of change in mental health include self-efficacy, cognitive processes, mastery experiences, and performance-based procedures.

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