Semantic power measured through the interference of words with color-naming.
TL;DR: The sources of the word's power to interfere with color-naming and the events involved in the interference itself have not received much attention.
Abstract: Show the words 'red,' 'green,' 'yellow,' and 'blue,' printed in colored inks but in incongruent combinations of color and word, e.g. the word 'red' printed in the color yellow, the word 'yellow' in the color blue, and so on. The Ss are to name the colors (of the inks) as quickly as possible, ignoring the words. It is not easy to do. Invariably, the colors are harder to name than when they are shown in simple strips uncomplicated by words. The phenomenon was noticed by Jaensch, and was first reported in this country by Stroop.1 To say that the word interferes with the naming of the color is a fair reflection of the S's experience. Volume of voice goes up; reading falters; now and then the words break through abortively; and there are embarrassed giggles. These and other signs of strain and effort are common. The sources of the word's power to interfere with color-naming and the events involved in the interference itself have not received much attention,
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TL;DR: It is concluded that recent theories placing the explanatory weight on parallel processing of the irrelevant and the relevant dimensions are likely to be more sucessful than are earlier theories attempting to locate a single bottleneck in attention.
Abstract: The literature on interference in the Stroop Color-Word Task, covering over 50 years and some 400 studies, is organized and reviewed. In so doing, a set of 18 reliable empirical finding is isolated that must be captured by any successful theory of the Stroop effect. Existing theoretical positions are summarized and evaluated in view of this critical evidence and the 2 major candidate theories ―relative speed of processing and automaticity of reading― are found to be wanting. It is concluded that recent theories placing the explanatory weight on parallel processing of the irrelevant and the relevant dimensions are likely to be more sucessful than are earlier theories attempting to locate a single bottleneck in attention
5,172 citations
Cites background from "Semantic power measured through the..."
...Phaf, van der Heijden, and Hudson (1990) use an architectural property—direct connections between compatible stimuli and responses—instead of the differential weights favored by Cohen et al....
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...A quarter of a century ago, Klein (1964) saw interference as resulting from the need to "restimulate" with the ink color to overcome the strong tendency to produce the word, although...
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...strongly supported Klein's arguments. Murray, Mastronardi, and Duncan (1972) also supported Klein in showing that subjects named the colors of color words more slowly than those of animal words....
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2,819 citations
TL;DR: The authors review research showing that patients are often slower to name the color of a word associated with concerns relevant to their clinical condition and address the causes and mechanisms underlying the phenomenon, focusing on J.L. McClelland's parallel distributed processing model.
Abstract: Attentional bias is a central feature of many cognitive theories of psychopathology. One of the most frequent methods of investigating such bias has been an emotional analog of the Stroop task. In this task, participants name the colors in which words are printed, and the words vary in their relevance to each theme of psychopathology. The authors review research showing that patients are often slower to name the color of a word associated with concerns relevant to their clinical condition. They address the causes and mechanisms underlying the phenomenon, focusing on J.D. Cohen, K. Dunbar, and J.L. McClelland's (1990) parallel distributed processing model.
2,387 citations
TL;DR: A model of attention is presented within a parallel distributed processing framework, and it is proposed that the attributes of automaticity depend on the strength of a processing pathway and that strength increases with training.
Abstract: : A growing body of evidence suggests that traditional views of automaticity are in need of revision. For example, automaticity has often been treated as an all-or-none phenomenon, and traditional theories have held that automatic processes are independent of attention. Yet recent empirial data suggests that automatic processes are continuous, and furthermore are subject to attentional control. In this paper we present a model of attention which addresses these issues. Using a parallel distributed processing framework we propose that the attributes of automaticity depend upon the strength of a process and that strength increases with training. Using the Stroop effect as an example, we show how automatic processes are continuous and emerge gradually with practice. Specifically, we present a computational model of the Stroop task which simulates the time course of processing as well as the effects of learning.
1,923 citations
Cites background or methods from "Semantic power measured through the..."
...Glaser & Glaser, 1982), and that words that are not in the response set produce less interference with color naming than words that are (Dunbar, 1985; Klein, 1964)....
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...This simulation provides an account for response-set effects that have been observed in empirical studies (e.g., Dunbar, 1985; Klein, 1964; Proctor, 1978)....
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