Semi-empirical procedures for evaluating liquefaction potential during earthquakes
TL;DR: In this paper, semi-empirical procedures for evaluating the liquefaction potential of saturated cohesionless soils during earthquakes are re-examined and revised relations for use in practice are recommended.
About: This article is published in Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering.The article was published on 2006-02-01. It has received 651 citations till now. The article focuses on the topics: Liquefaction.
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TL;DR: There is, I think, something ethereal about i —the square root of minus one, which seems an odd beast at that time—an intruder hovering on the edge of reality.
Abstract: There is, I think, something ethereal about i —the square root of minus one. I remember first hearing about it at school. It seemed an odd beast at that time—an intruder hovering on the edge of reality.
Usually familiarity dulls this sense of the bizarre, but in the case of i it was the reverse: over the years the sense of its surreal nature intensified. It seemed that it was impossible to write mathematics that described the real world in …
33,785 citations
TL;DR: The electric cone penetration test (CPT) has been in use for over 40 years and is growing in popularity in North America as discussed by the authors, and some recent updates on the interpretation of some key g...
Abstract: The electric cone penetration test (CPT) has been in use for over 40 years and is growing in popularity in North America. This paper provides some recent updates on the interpretation of some key g...
647 citations
TL;DR: The results of cyclic tests indicate that the Chinese criteria are not reliable for determining the liquefaction susceptibility of fine-grained soils as discussed by the authors, and the plasticity index (PI) is a better indicator of soil susceptibility.
Abstract: Observations from recent earthquakes and the results of cyclic tests indicate that the Chinese criteria are not reliable for determining the liquefaction susceptibility of fine-grained soils. Fine-grained soils that liquefied during the 1994 Northridge, 1999 Kocaeli, and 1999 Chi-Chi earthquakes often did not meet the clay-size criterion of the Chinese criteria. Cyclic testing of a wide range of soils found to liquefy in Adapazari during the Kocaeli earthquake confirmed that these fine-grained soils were susceptible to liquefaction. It is not the amount of “clay-size” particles in the soil; rather, it is the amount and type of clay minerals in the soil that best indicate liquefaction susceptibility. Thus plasticity index (PI) is a better indicator of liquefaction susceptibility. Loose soils with PI 0.85 were susceptible to liquefaction, and loose soils with 12 0.8 were systematically more resistant to liquefaction. Soils with PI>18 tested at low effective confining stresses ...
374 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors present a complete methodology for both probabilistic and deterministic assessment of seismic soil liquefaction triggering potential based on the cone penetration test (CPT).
Abstract: This paper presents a complete methodology for both probabilistic and deterministic assessment of seismic soil liquefaction triggering potential based on the cone penetration test (CPT). A comprehensive worldwide set of CPT-based liquefaction field case histories were compiled and back analyzed, and the data then used to develop probabilistic triggering correlations. Issues investigated in this study include improved normalization of CPT resistance measurements for the influence of effective overburden stress, and adjustment to CPT tip resistance for the potential influence of "thin" liquefiable layers. The effects of soil type and soil character (i.e., "fines" adjustment) for the new correlations are based on a combination of CPT tip and sleeve resistance. To quantify probability for performance-based engineering applications, Bayesian "regression" methods were used, and the uncertainties of all variables comprising both the seismic demand and the liquefaction resistance were estimated and included in the analysis. The resulting correlations were developed using a Bayesian framework and are presented in both probabilistic and deterministic formats. The results are compared to previous probabilistic and deterministic correlations.
314 citations
01 Jan 2006
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present a complete methodology for both probabilistic and deterministic assessment of seismic soil liquefaction triggering potential based on the cone penetration test (CPT).
Abstract: This paper presents a complete methodology for both probabilistic and deterministic assessment of seismic soil liquefaction triggering potential based on the cone penetration test (CPT). A comprehensive worldwide set of CPT-based liquefaction field case histories were compiled and back analyzed, and the data then used to develop probabilistic triggering correlations. Issues investigated in this study include improved normalization of CPT resistance measurements for the influence of effective overburden stress, and adjustment to CPT tip resistance for the potential influence of "thin" liquefiable layers. The effects of soil type and soil character (i.e., "fines" adjustment) for the new correlations are based on a combination of CPT tip and sleeve resistance. To quantify probability for performance-based engineering applications, Bayesian "regression" methods were used, and the uncertainties of all variables comprising both the seismic demand and the liquefaction resistance were estimated and included in the analysis. The resulting correlations were developed using a Bayesian framework and are presented in both probabilistic and deterministic formats. The results are compared to previous probabilistic and deterministic correlations.
267 citations
References
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TL;DR: There is, I think, something ethereal about i —the square root of minus one, which seems an odd beast at that time—an intruder hovering on the edge of reality.
Abstract: There is, I think, something ethereal about i —the square root of minus one. I remember first hearing about it at school. It seemed an odd beast at that time—an intruder hovering on the edge of reality.
Usually familiarity dulls this sense of the bizarre, but in the case of i it was the reverse: over the years the sense of its surreal nature intensified. It seemed that it was impossible to write mathematics that described the real world in …
33,785 citations
Journal Article•
28,685 citations
TL;DR: Significant factors affecting the liquefaction (or cyclic mobility) potential of sands during earthquakes are identified, and a simplified procedure for evaluating the potential of sand during earthquakes is presented as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: Significant factors affecting the liquefaction (or cyclic mobility) potential of sands during earthquakes are identified, and a simplified procedure for evaluating liquefaction potential which will take these factors into account is presented Available field data concerning the liquefaction or nonliquefaction behavior of sands during earthquakes is assembled and compared with evaluations of performance using the simplified procedure It is suggested that even the limited available field data can provide a useful guide to the probable performance of other sand deposits, that the proposed method of presenting the data provides a useful framework for evaluating past experiences of sand liquefaction during earthquakes and that the simplified evaluation procedure provides a reasonably good means for extending previous field observations to new situations When greater accuracy is justified, the simplified liquefaction evaluation procedure can readily be supplemented by test data on particular soils or by ground response analyses to provide more definitive evaluations
2,250 citations
"Semi-empirical procedures for evalu..." refers background or methods in this paper
...STRESS REDUCTION COEFFICIENT, dr Seed and Idriss (1971) introduced the stress reduction coefficient dr as a parameter describing the ratio of cyclic stresses for a flexible soil column to the cyclic stresses for a rigid soil column, as illustrated in Figure 1....
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...The original simplified procedure (Seed and Idriss 1971) for estimating earthquake-induced cyclic shear stresses continues to be an essential component of the analysis framework, although there have been a number of refinements to the various components of this framework....
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...…(6) would provide a sufficient degree of accuracy for engineering applications and it is recommended that these equations be used in lieu of the figure originally published by Seed and Idriss (1971) or any of the equations that have been derived over the past 30 or so years based on that figure....
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TL;DR: In this paper, the strength and dilatancy of 17 sands in axisymmetric or plane strain at different densities and confining pressures are collated, and the critical state angle of shearing resistance of soil which is shearing at constant volume is determined experimentally within a margin of about 1°, being roughly 33° for quartz and 40° for feldspar.
Abstract: Extensive data of the strength and dilatancy of 17 sands in axisymmetric or plane strain at different densities and confining pressures are collated. The critical state angle of shearing resistance of soil which is shearing at constant volume is principally a function of mineralogy and can readily be determined experimentally within a margin of about 1°, being roughly 33° for quartz and 40° for feldspar. The extra angle of shearing of ‘dense’ soil is correlated to its rate of dilation and thence to its relative density and mean effective stress, combined in a new relative dilatancy index. The data of o′max – o′crit in triaxial or plane strain are separately fitted within a typical margin of about 2°, though the streneth of certain sands is underpredicted in the 1000–10000 kN/m2 range owing to the continued dilation of their crush-resistant grains. The practical consequences of these new correlations are assessed, with regard to both laboratory and field testing procedures. L'auteur analyse de nombreuses d...
2,214 citations
"Semi-empirical procedures for evalu..." refers background or methods in this paper
...The values of MSF obtained using equation ( 8 ) are presented in Figure 6, together with those proposed by others....
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...r and MSF relations described in equations (6) ( 8 ), and (11) are recommended for use in practice because they incorporate the primary features of behavior identified by analytical and experimental studies, without becoming too complex or implying undue accuracy....
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...The parameter Q determines the stress at which the critical state line curves sharply downwards, indicating the onset of significant particle crushing, and its value depends on grain type, with Q 10 for quartz and feldspar (Bolton 1986)....
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TL;DR: In 1996, a workshop sponsored by the National Center for Earthquake Engineering Research (NCEER) was convened by Professors T. L. Youd and I. M. Idriss with 20 experts to review developments over the previous 10 years as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: Following disastrous earthquakes in Alaska and in Niigata, Japan in 1964, Professors H. B. Seed and I. M. Idriss developed and published a methodology termed the ''simplified procedure'' for evaluating liquefaction resistance of soils. This procedure has become a standard of practice throughout North America and much of the world. The methodology which is largely empirical, has evolved over years, primarily through summary papers by H. B. Seed and his colleagues. No general review or update of the procedure has occurred, however, since 1985, the time of the last major paper by Professor Seed and a report from a National Research Council workshop on liquefaction of soils. In 1996 a workshop sponsored by the National Center for Earthquake Engineering Research (NCEER) was convened by Professors T. L. Youd and I. M. Idriss with 20 experts to review developments over the previous 10 years. The purpose was to gain consensus on updates and augmen- tations to the simplified procedure. The following topics were reviewed and recommendations developed: (1) criteria based on standard penetration tests; (2) criteria based on cone penetration tests; (3) criteria based on shear-wave velocity measurements; (4) use of the Becker penetration test for gravelly soil; (4) magnitude scaling factors; (5) correction factors for overburden pressures and sloping ground; and (6) input values for earthquake magnitude and peak acceleration. Probabilistic and seismic energy analyses were reviewed but no recommen- dations were formulated.
1,766 citations