Silvopastoralism in Turkey’s Mountainous Mediterranean Region

doi:10.1659/0276-4741(2003)023[0128:SITMMR]2.0.CO;2

Silvopastoralism in Turkey's Mountainous Mediterranean

Region

Authors: Geray, Uçkun, and Özden, Sezgin

Source: Mountain Research and Development, 23(2) : 128-131

Published By: International Mountain Society

URL: https://doi.org/10.1659/0276-

4741(2003)023[0128:SITMMR]2.0.CO;2

BioOne Complete (complete.BioOne.org) is a full-text database of 200 subscribed and open-access titles

in the biological, ecological, and environmental sciences published by nonprofit societies, associations,

museums, institutions, and presses.

Your use of this PDF, the BioOne Complete website, and all posted and associated content indicates your

acceptance of BioOne’s Terms of Use, available at www.bioone.org/terms-of-use.

Usage of BioOne Complete content is strictly limited to personal, educational, and non - commercial use.

Commercial inquiries or rights and permissions requests should be directed to the individual publisher as

copyright holder.

BioOne sees sustainable scholarly publishing as an inherently collaborative enterprise connecting authors, nonprofit

publishers, academic institutions, research libraries, and research funders in the common goal of maximizing access to

critical research.

Downloaded From: https://bioone.org/journals/Mountain-Research-and-Development on 09 Aug 2022

Terms of Use: https://bioone.org/terms-of-use

The natural setting

Silvopastoralism, a livestock production

system that focuses mainly on the Anato-

lian black goat (native hair goat or kil

kecisi), is a major component of rural cul-

ture in Turkey’s Mediterranean Region

(TMR). It was introduced to the area by

the Yoruks, a (semi-)nomadic Turkish

tribe that migrated to Anatolia from Cen-

tral Asia in the 10th century. The TMR

extends 700 km from Fethiye Bay in the

southwest to the Elbistan Plain in the

southeast (Figure 1). It is characterized by

high mountain chains, plateaus, biological

diversity, and local cultural values.

The Taurus Mountains—the western

extension of the Himalaya—are the most

prominent feature of the region (Figure

2). Seventy percent of the land in the

TMR is mountainous. The productive allu-

vial soils located in the coastal parts and

depressed plains do not constitute a major

portion of the landscape. The TMR con-

tains 28% of Turkey’s total forestland,

which can roughly be divided into 2 cate-

gories: “lower zone vegetation” consisting

mainly of Calabrian pine and maquis, and

“higher zone vegetation” that comprises

European black pine, Cedar of Lebanon,

and Cilician fir. Maquis vegetation can

extend up to 800 m and Calabrian pine

up to 1200 m, with the tree line at 2050 m.

Frequent rain, improper grazing and agri-

cultural practices, and deforestation exac-

erbate soil erosion.

Pasturelands in the TMR represent 9%

of the region’s total surface (Table 1).

There has been a dramatic decrease in pas-

ture area due to mechanized ploughing to

gain cropland and an increase of animals

grazing on the TMR’s pastures to 3–4 times

more than their carrying capacity. Villages

rarely plan pasture management, which is

left totally to the shepherds. The most

degraded pastures are found on the least

productive ecological systems and areas

close to villages. They cannot be improved

and managed efficiently in the short term.

Larger pasture areas urgently require very

careful improvement and management

techniques. The government has made lim-

ited attempts to improve pastureland

through artificial fertilization in some areas.

Land ownership and demographic

patterns

In Turkey, 99% of the forest- and range-

lands are owned by the state and other

public entities. This ownership pattern is

more or less the same in the TMR. Where-

as forestlands are managed by the state

forest enterprises, rangelands are allocat-

ed for common use by the villages. Turkey

has 21,745,000 ha of rangelands,

1,014,100 of which are in the TMR. Most

of the rangeland areas are close to forests.

Silvopastoralism in Turkey’s

Mountainous Mediterranean Region

Uçkun Geray

Sezgin Özden

128

Mountain Research and Development Vol 23 No 2 May 2003: 128–131

Grasslands and forests are degraded in

Turkey’s Mediterranean Region (TMR), the

center of the widespread traditional Yoruk

silvopastoral system. Government efforts to

halt degradation focus on afforestation, a

policy that reduces the amount of land avail-

able to the Yoruks for their traditional liveli-

hood system, which is further endangered

by socioeconomic dynamics subject to the

pressures of globalization. This silvopas-

toral system is examined with respect to

policies that affect it and its potential for

sustainability, with a view to regional com-

munity development. Interaction between

this regional system, a component of tradi-

tional culture in the TMR, and current trends

in globalization are noted, and the need for

harmony between silvopastoralism and

forestry is examined.

FIGURE 1 Location of the TMR.

(Map by Andreas Brodbeck)

Downloaded From: https://bioone.org/journals/Mountain-Research-and-Development on 09 Aug 2022

Terms of Use: https://bioone.org/terms-of-use

Development

129

Developed townships are located

either along the coast or on the fertile

plains, whereas less developed townships

are situated inland and in the mountains.

Urban areas along the coastline and in

lowland plains receive immigrants from

almost all other regions in the country.

Approximately 1 million forest villagers

moved out of the TMR between 1980 and

1997 because of governmental policy to

protect forests, degradation of pasture-

lands, rural poverty, and industry and

tourism policies. Immigration from rural

areas to the cities has led to various prob-

lems with infrastructure, education and

employment, and to environmental degra-

dation. Demographic, economic, and

structural problems have also occurred in

rural areas.

Livestock production

Extensive animal husbandry, especially

black goat breeding, has been the basis of

livestock production in the TMR. The most

significant advantages of black goat breed-

ing are the use of otherwise “unused”

ecosystems and low financial and labor

inputs by the villages. According to ORKÖY

(General Directorate of Forest and Rural

Relations) data, 28% of the 8.7 million

black goats in Turkey are found in the

TMR. Although goat production has con-

tributed considerably to the regional econ-

omy, it is experiencing a decline. In the

TMR, seminomadic, transhumance and

sedentary livestock production are based

largely on silvopasture. Until recently, yayla-

cilik, a seminomadic form of production,

was a more common practice than the oth-

ers. Today, however, sedentary livestock

production appears to be more common,

largely because seminomadic communities

have become settled villagers.

Different livestock production prac-

tices are the result of natural, economic,

and social factors as well as historical

development. Migration was a traditional

way of life for ancient Turks mainly

because of the biophysical requirements

of livestock production. Nomadic and

seminomadic lifestyles were brought to

Anatolia and the TMR (where bioclimatic

conditions were favorable) by the Yoruks,

a Turkish tribe from Central Asia. Today,

the mainly sedentary livestock production

usually involves grazing black goats and

sheep in relatively small numbers on cop-

pice, maquis, and grasslands in forests.

Anatolian black goat production is

important for several reasons: black goats

produce milk, hair, and meat, are resistant

to ailments, are not highly selective in

terms of food, and have an ability to climb

that allows them to reach practically all

available grazing land (Figure 3). Howev-

er, all pastureland in the TMR is degrad-

ed. The Yoruks traditionally graze their

goats on natural pasturelands and in

forests, but they also use forest products

illegally as forage for livestock. An

improvement of the silvopastoral system is

needed to move toward more sustainable

use of grassland resources.

The potential of the silvopastoral

system

Originally, Yoruk communities were self-

sufficient and did not produce for the

market. Today, however, they appear to

have close contact with the market envi-

FIGURE 2 Typical landscape in the Taurus Mountains, Turkey. (Photo by Sezgin Özden)

Quality

Cover

Forest area,

including coppice (ha)

Pasturelands

(ha)

Normal

2,386,439 100,396

Degraded

3,226,399 913,704

Total

5,612,838 1,014,100

TABLE 1 Forest areas and

pasturelands in Turkey’s

Mediterranean Region.

Downloaded From: https://bioone.org/journals/Mountain-Research-and-Development on 09 Aug 2022

Terms of Use: https://bioone.org/terms-of-use

Uçkun Geray and Sezgin Özden

Mountain Research and Development Vol 23 No 2 May 2003

130

ronment, which exposes them more to

external influences and pressure, and

leads, among others, to more intense use

of natural resources in the hope of gener-

ating income. Traditional forestry prac-

tices promoted by the government are

also problematical in the area, first

because more than half of the forest cover

in the TMR is unproductive in terms of

timber production and second because

they tend to prohibit access to resources

for such communities as the Yoruks.

Today a comprehensive planning

approach that takes into account the

human, vegetative, and animal compo-

nents of silvopastoralism is needed. It is

vital that the younger generation remain

willing to adopt and further develop sil-

vopasture as a way of life and culture. At

the same time, the crucial external aspects

of the silvopastoral system need to be con-

tinuously monitored. Policies on forestry,

agriculture, and livestock growing directly

affect the sustainability of the silvopasture

system.

Given the existence of “inflationary

pressures” in the Turkish economy, outlays

for controlling silvopasture and raising its

productivity would clearly pay off sooner

than expenditures for plantation and

afforestation. This could help ensure vil-

lagers’ participation in and the state’s sup-

port for silvopastoral management. Fur-

thermore, there is a close relationship

between silvopastoral practices and pro-

duction of organic foods, for which mar-

kets are expanding noticeably. There has

been a lack of adequate emphasis on

organic foods in local forest and range-

land resource management. The TMR, in

which the tourism sector is very active,

must be considered as a source of organic

foods, with silvopastoral products, hunting

and wildlife products, and medical and

aromatic plants.

Finally, and perhaps most importantly,

it must be emphasized that forestry and

silvopasture have sociocultural implica-

tions. Carefully planned forestry and sil-

vopasture can strengthen the currently

eroding sociocultural framework within

which mountain communities such as the

Yoruks can develop adapted livelihoods

and can help limit the loss of cultural

diversity in the TMR (Figure 4).

FIGURE 4 A Yoruk household in their tent. (Photo by Sezgin Özden)

FIGURE 3 Anatolian black goat: this breed’s agility and surefootedness makes it an ideal

animal for pastoral production in the Taurus Mountains. (Photo by Sezgin Özden)

Downloaded From: https://bioone.org/journals/Mountain-Research-and-Development on 09 Aug 2022

Terms of Use: https://bioone.org/terms-of-use

Development

131

Persistent problems

Agriculture on fragmented, unproductive

and remote lands appears to be a major

reason for rural poverty and migration in

the TMR. Other problems in rural areas

include excessive population growth, lack

of entrepreneurship and social organiza-

tion, inadequate education, lack of finan-

cial resources for rural development, and

lack of institutional perception. Miscon-

ceptions in forestry exemplify this lack of

institutional perception. For example, for-

est management approaches that oppose

silvopasture in general and Anatolian

black goat breeding in the TMR in partic-

ular still persist, based on the argument

that this leads to the “destruction” of

forests. Largely because of this condi-

tioned reaction, there has been no quest

for wise silvopasture management. Ironi-

cally, neither have any steps been taken to

bring the silvopastoral production system

to an end.

The negative impacts of globalization

exacerbate these problems. It could be

argued that the process of globalization

has undermined economic self-sufficiency.

Certain economic sectors, namely agricul-

ture and livestock growing, have experi-

enced serious difficulties as a result. More-

over, the pressure of globalization appears

to be responsible for the disappearance of

local and regional cultures shaped for

centuries or even millennia. As in the case

of natural resource management, the sus-

tainability of cultures depends on the sus-

tainability of their social, economic, and

ecological bases and the self-reproductive

capacities of their systems of production.

Outlook and recommendations

Certain rural areas in the TMR do not

seem suitable for silvopastoralism. Exces-

sive emigration to other regions has

deprived numerous villages of their “pro-

ductive” population, hindering the success

of silvopastoral activities. Determining the

viability and outlook for silvopasture in

the TMR will require a master land-use

plan that takes into account all interrelat-

ed sectors, including forestry, water,

wildlife and hunting, recreation, and eco-

tourism.

The absence of legal stability and

institutional coordination is also a major

impediment to sustainable silvopastoral

management. In Turkey, the authorities

responsible for forest management, range

management, and water management

operate with minimal coordination and

cooperation. One solution to this bottle-

neck would be to designate a higher

Watershed Management Authority respon-

sible for integrated planning and coordi-

nation among natural resource authori-

ties. There is also a need for regulations to

establish village associations and draw up

contracts for rural development projects

with villages or village associations.

Moreover, the sustainability of sil-

vopastoral systems in the TMR should be

secured through establishment of village

cooperatives involving the market, price

supports, and more effective and extensive

education. A focus on “growing vegeta-

tion” in lieu of growing trees or traditional

afforestation activities could promote sil-

vopastoral practices. Because the forestry

administration has adopted a policy of pro-

tection or afforestation on open areas

within and adjacent to forestlands, con-

flicts have occurred in forest–society rela-

tions, and compromise appears difficult.

It appears that if the current course of

development in the TMR continues with-

out mitigating interventions, conse-

quences such as the disappearance of his-

torical and cultural features, erosion of

potential for tourism, and exacerbation of

social problems in urban areas due to

excessive migration from rural areas will

be inevitable. Moreover, income will

decline because of failure to exploit natu-

ral grazing opportunities and the poten-

tial for organic food production. Interven-

tions need to focus on in situ develop-

ment of the essential components of the

silvopastoral system—human, vegetative,

and animal.

The issue of silvopastoral sustainabili-

ty in the TMR thus calls for a multidimen-

sional, comprehensive management

approach. Globalization represents the

greatest threat to this production system

and its multidimensional benefits. There

is an urgent need to adopt vigorous meas-

ures to counter this threat and prevent

adverse effects.

AUTHORS

Uçkun Geray

Director Forestry Economics Depart-

ment, Faculty of Forestry, Istanbul Uni-

versity, Istanbul, Turkey.

geray@istanbul.edu.tr

Uçkun Geray holds a chair at the

Faculty of Forestry, Istanbul University.

His main research areas are forest

resource economics, environmental

ethics, rural development in forest vil-

lages, and development of forest

resource management in Turkey. Pro-

fessor Geray is a consultant for several

NGOs in Turkey as well as a member of

the Board of Directors of the “Associa-

tion Internationale Forêts Méditer-

ranéenne.”

Sezgin Özden

Forestry Economics Department, Fac-

ulty of Forestry, Ankara University,

Cankiri, Turkey.

ozden@forestry.ankara.edu.tr or

ozden@foresteconomics.org

Sezgin Özden is Assistant Professor

at the Faculty of Forestry, Ankara Uni-

versity. He works on rural development,

rural women’s problems and status, for-

est policy formulation, migration trends

in rural areas, forest resource econom-

ics, cultural facets of traditional live-

stock systems, and participatory forest

management. Dr Özden is a member of

several environmental associations in

Turkey.

Silvopastoralism in Turkey’s Mountainous Mediterranean Region

Citations

Cites background from "Silvopastoralism in Turkey’s Mounta..."

Cites background from "Silvopastoralism in Turkey’s Mounta..."

Cites background from "Silvopastoralism in Turkey’s Mounta..."

References

Related Papers (5)