Sodium-ion batteries: present and future
19 Jun 2017-Chemical Society Reviews (The Royal Society of Chemistry)-Vol. 46, Iss: 12, pp 3529-3614
TL;DR: Current research on materials is summarized and discussed and future directions for SIBs are proposed to provide important insights into scientific and practical issues in the development of S IBs.
Abstract: Energy production and storage technologies have attracted a great deal of attention for day-to-day applications. In recent decades, advances in lithium-ion battery (LIB) technology have improved living conditions around the globe. LIBs are used in most mobile electronic devices as well as in zero-emission electronic vehicles. However, there are increasing concerns regarding load leveling of renewable energy sources and the smart grid as well as the sustainability of lithium sources due to their limited availability and consequent expected price increase. Therefore, whether LIBs alone can satisfy the rising demand for small- and/or mid-to-large-format energy storage applications remains unclear. To mitigate these issues, recent research has focused on alternative energy storage systems. Sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) are considered as the best candidate power sources because sodium is widely available and exhibits similar chemistry to that of LIBs; therefore, SIBs are promising next-generation alternatives. Recently, sodiated layer transition metal oxides, phosphates and organic compounds have been introduced as cathode materials for SIBs. Simultaneously, recent developments have been facilitated by the use of select carbonaceous materials, transition metal oxides (or sulfides), and intermetallic and organic compounds as anodes for SIBs. Apart from electrode materials, suitable electrolytes, additives, and binders are equally important for the development of practical SIBs. Despite developments in electrode materials and other components, there remain several challenges, including cell design and electrode balancing, in the application of sodium ion cells. In this article, we summarize and discuss current research on materials and propose future directions for SIBs. This will provide important insights into scientific and practical issues in the development of SIBs.
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TL;DR: In this article, the authors adopted a materials genome approach based on the density functional theory to screen stable phases through intercalating Na+ into a standard layered MXene phase of Ti4C2O4.
Abstract: Rechargeable sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) have great potential as an alternative technology to substitute resource-limited lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). However, there is a greater safety concern in directly employing metallic sodium as the anode due to sodium being highly active chemically. It is also very challenging to develop SIB electrodes with high capacity as sodium ions are significantly larger and heavier than lithium ions. Here, in this work, we adopted a materials genome approach based on the density functional theory to screen stable phases through intercalating Na+ into a standard layered MXene phase of Ti4C2O4. It is highly appealing to note that each of the resultant series of MXene compounds of NaxTi4C2O4 (0 ≤ x ≤ 12) can maintain the layered structure of Ti4C2O4 through a fairly large extent of Na+ intercalation. The electrochemical potential vs. Na/Na+ is reversely correlated to the Na content: from 2.96 V and 2.40 V for NaxTi4C2O4 (1 ≤ x ≤ 2) down to 0.05 V for Na12Ti4C2O4. The total capacity for Na12Ti4C2O4 exceeds 579.00 mA h g−1, and this makes it a very promising high-capacity candidate as an anode for SIBs, since the structural integrity of the battery cells would be readily maintained over discharging/charging cycles. Besides, the O-terminated Ti4C2O4 layers are hydrophobic and oxygen-resistant; thus, the intercalated Na would be well protected in ambient processing conditions.
18 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the structural transformation, charge transfer, and ionic diffusion properties of Na4MnV(PO4)3 were comprehensively studied by first-principles calculations combined with experimental studies.
Abstract: NASICON-structured Na4MnV(PO4)3 has been recognized as a potential positive electrode material for sodium-ion batteries, but its electrochemical mechanism during de(sodiation) has not been well understood. In this work, the structural transformation, charge transfer, and ionic diffusion properties of Na4MnV(PO4)3 were comprehensively studied by first-principles calculations combined with experimental studies. The results revealed two independent Na sites, Na(1) and Na(2), in the structure of Na4MnV(PO4)3, but only Na(2) can be extracted between 2.5 and 3.8 V. Extraction of the first Na+ caused charge transfer on V3+ and was associated with a solid-solution reaction. In addition, Na+ migrated along the 3D channels in the NASICON structure with low energy barriers of <0.4 eV. With extraction of the second Na+, the charge transfer process occurred on Mn2+. The material underwent a biphasic transition with the Na(1) atom auto-migrating to a nearby interstitial site, Na(3). During this process, Na+ migrated in a 1D channel with a relatively higher diffusion barrier of 0.52 eV. In line with the structural evolution, the Na+ diffusion coefficients remained at 2.0 × 10−12 cm2 s−1 during the first Na+ extraction, and then decreased to 9.7 × 10−14 cm2 s−1 with the extraction of the second Na+.
18 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, an ion-conductive polyimide (PI) encapsulation was used to enhance the performance of P2-type Na2/3(Mn0.54Ni0.13Co0.1)O2 (NNMC) materials.
18 citations
TL;DR: The significantly improved electrochemical performance of the core-shell structured anatase TiO2 spheres is attributed to the synergistic effect of the oxygen vacancies in the anatase lattice and surface nitrogen-doped carbon coating.
Abstract: In this work, the impact of oxygen vacancies and nitrogen-doped carbon coating on the sodium-ion storage properties of anatase TiO2 has been demonstrated. Oxygen vacancies and nitrogen-doped carbon coating were introduced simultaneously by the calcination of core–shell structured TiO2 spheres in a reducing atmosphere. Compared to the anatase TiO2 with and without oxygen vacancies, TiO2−x@NC exhibits much better electrochemical performance in the storage of sodium ions. A high reversible capacity of 245.6 mA h g−1 is maintained at 0.1 A g−1 after 200 cycles, and a high specific capacity of 155.6 mA h g−1 is achieved at a high rate of 5.0 A g−1. The significantly improved electrochemical performance of the core–shell structured anatase TiO2 spheres is attributed to the synergistic effect of the oxygen vacancies in the anatase lattice and surface nitrogen-doped carbon coating. This work provides an efficient strategy for improving the electrochemical performance of metal–oxide-based electrode materials for sodium-ion batteries.
17 citations
TL;DR: In this article, a review of the role of oxygen vacancies in rechargeable ion batteries is presented, where the authors summarize the synthesis methods and characterisation techniques used to synthesize oxygen vacancies as well as some of the most recent and exciting progress made to understand their role in the electrochemical performance of Li-, Na-, K- and Zn-ion batteries.
Abstract: Rechargeable ion batteries are one of the most reliable energy storage technologies for the applications ranging from small portable devices and electric vehicles to renewable energy integration and large-scale stationary energy storage. In the roadmap of developing and understanding new electrode materials for rechargeable ion batteries, oxygen vacancies, known as defects in metal oxides, have shown a high impact on the final electrochemical performance of the oxides. The present review aims to summarise the synthesis methods and characterisation techniques of oxygen vacancies as well as some of the most recent and exciting progress made to understand the role of oxygen vacancies in the electrochemical performance of Li-, Na-, K- and Zn-ion batteries. This review discusses not only the role of oxygen vacancies directly in electrode materials and indirectly in the coating layers on electrode materials, but also the synergistic role of oxygen vacancies interplaying with other contributors such as carbonaceous materials, doping, amorphisation, structural transformation, nanostructuring and functional coating. Finally, perspectives are given to stimulate new ideas and open questions to facilitate the further development of oxygen deficient electrode materials in energy research landscape.
17 citations
References
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TL;DR: The battery systems reviewed here include sodium-sulfur batteries that are commercially available for grid applications, redox-flow batteries that offer low cost, and lithium-ion batteries whose development for commercial electronics and electric vehicles is being applied to grid storage.
Abstract: The increasing interest in energy storage for the grid can be attributed to multiple factors, including the capital costs of managing peak demands, the investments needed for grid reliability, and the integration of renewable energy sources. Although existing energy storage is dominated by pumped hydroelectric, there is the recognition that battery systems can offer a number of high-value opportunities, provided that lower costs can be obtained. The battery systems reviewed here include sodium-sulfur batteries that are commercially available for grid applications, redox-flow batteries that offer low cost, and lithium-ion batteries whose development for commercial electronics and electric vehicles is being applied to grid storage.
11,144 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a single epitaxial graphene layer at the silicon carbide interface is shown to reveal the Dirac nature of the charge carriers, and all-graphene electronically coherent devices and device architectures are envisaged.
Abstract: Ultrathin epitaxial graphite was grown on single-crystal silicon carbide by vacuum graphitization. The material can be patterned using standard nanolithography methods. The transport properties, which are closely related to those of carbon nanotubes, are dominated by the single epitaxial graphene layer at the silicon carbide interface and reveal the Dirac nature of the charge carriers. Patterned structures show quantum confinement of electrons and phase coherence lengths beyond 1 micrometer at 4 kelvin, with mobilities exceeding 2.5 square meters per volt-second. All-graphene electronically coherent devices and device architectures are envisaged.
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Journal Article•
TL;DR: The transport properties, which are closely related to those of carbon nanotubes, are dominated by the single epitaxial graphene layer at the silicon carbide interface and reveal the Dirac nature of the charge carriers.
Abstract: Ultrathin epitaxial graphite was grown on single-crystal silicon carbide by vacuum graphitization. The material can be patterned using standard nanolithography methods. The transport properties, which are closely related to those of carbon nanotubes, are dominated by the single epitaxial graphene layer at the silicon carbide interface and reveal the Dirac nature of the charge carriers. Patterned structures show quantum confinement of electrons and phase coherence lengths beyond 1 micrometer at 4 kelvin, with mobilities exceeding 2.5 square meters per volt-second. All-graphene electronically coherent devices and device architectures are envisaged.
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TL;DR: In this paper, the status of ambient temperature sodium ion batteries is reviewed in light of recent developments in anode, electrolyte and cathode materials, including high performance layered transition metal oxides and polyanionic compounds.
Abstract: The status of ambient temperature sodium ion batteries is reviewed in light of recent developments in anode, electrolyte and cathode materials. These devices, although early in their stage of development, are promising for large-scale grid storage applications due to the abundance and very low cost of sodium-containing precursors used to make the components. The engineering knowledge developed recently for highly successful Li ion batteries can be leveraged to ensure rapid progress in this area, although different electrode materials and electrolytes will be required for dual intercalation systems based on sodium. In particular, new anode materials need to be identified, since the graphite anode, commonly used in lithium systems, does not intercalate sodium to any appreciable extent. A wider array of choices is available for cathodes, including high performance layered transition metal oxides and polyanionic compounds. Recent developments in electrodes are encouraging, but a great deal of research is necessary, particularly in new electrolytes, and the understanding of the SEI films. The engineering modeling calculations of Na-ion battery energy density indicate that 210 Wh kg−1 in gravimetric energy is possible for Na-ion batteries compared to existing Li-ion technology if a cathode capacity of 200 mAh g−1 and a 500 mAh g−1 anode can be discovered with an average cell potential of 3.3 V.
3,776 citations