Solid solubilities of impurity elements in germanium and silicon
TL;DR: In this paper, the available data on solid solubilities of impurity elements in germanium and silicon are summarized in the form of solidus or solvus curves.
Abstract: The available data on solid solubilities of impurity elements in germanium and silicon are summarized in the form of solidus or solvus curves. New solubility data are presented for the lead-germanium, zinc-germanium, indium-germanium, antimony-silicon, gallium-silicon and aluminum-silicon systems. The correlation of the solid solubilities with the heats of sublimation and the atom sizes of the impurity elements is considered.
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IBM1
TL;DR: In this article, the authors highlight the intricate interdependencies and subtle tradeoffs between various practically important device parameters, and also provide an in-depth discussion of device scaling and scaling limits of CMOS and bipolar devices.
Abstract: Learn the basic properties and designs of modern VLSI devices, as well as the factors affecting performance, with this thoroughly updated second edition. The first edition has been widely adopted as a standard textbook in microelectronics in many major US universities and worldwide. The internationally-renowned authors highlight the intricate interdependencies and subtle tradeoffs between various practically important device parameters, and also provide an in-depth discussion of device scaling and scaling limits of CMOS and bipolar devices. Equations and parameters provided are checked continuously against the reality of silicon data, making the book equally useful in practical transistor design and in the classroom. Every chapter has been updated to include the latest developments, such as MOSFET scale length theory, high-field transport model, and SiGe-base bipolar devices.
2,680 citations
TL;DR: This review explores different material classes for plasmonic and metamaterial applications, such as conventional semiconductors, transparent conducting oxides, perovskiteOxides, metal nitrides, silicides, germanides, and 2D materials such as graphene.
Abstract: Materials research plays a vital role in transforming breakthrough scientific ideas into next-generation technology. Similar to the way silicon revolutionized the microelectronics industry, the proper materials can greatly impact the field of plasmonics and metamaterials. Currently, research in plasmonics and metamaterials lacks good material building blocks in order to realize useful devices. Such devices suffer from many drawbacks arising from the undesirable properties of their material building blocks, especially metals. There are many materials, other than conventional metallic components such as gold and silver, that exhibit metallic properties and provide advantages in device performance, design flexibility, fabrication, integration, and tunability. This review explores different material classes for plasmonic and metamaterial applications, such as conventional semiconductors, transparent conducting oxides, perovskite oxides, metal nitrides, silicides, germanides, and 2D materials such as graphene. This review provides a summary of the recent developments in the search for better plasmonic materials and an outlook of further research directions.
1,836 citations
01 Dec 1973
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors review some of the general features of the characteristics of implanted layers in terms of depth distribution, radiation damage, and electron activity in compound semiconductors, particularly GaAs.
Abstract: Ion implantation is being applied extensively to silicon device technology. Two principle features are utilized- 1) charge control in MOS structures for threshold shift, autoregistration, and complementary wells and 2) distribution control in microwave and bipolar structures. Another feature that has not been extensively exploited is to combine the advantages of the high resolution capabilities of electric beam pattern delineation with the low lateral spread inherent in the implantation process. This talk reviews some of the general features of the characteristics of implanted layers in terms of depth distribution, radiation damage and electron activity. Implantation processes in silicon are reasonably well understood. There remain areas which require further clarification. For compound semiconductors, particularly GaAs, implantation techniques offer attractive possibilities for the fabrication of high frequency devices. In these materials, the substrate temperature during implantation and the dielectric coating required to prevent dissociation during thermal anneal play major roles.
1,221 citations
01 Jan 1983
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors review some of the general features of the characteristics of implanted layers in terms of depth distribution, radiation damage, and electron activity in compound semiconductors, particularly GaAs.
Abstract: Ion implantation is being applied extensively to silicon device technology. Two principle features are utilized- 1) charge control in MOS structures for threshold shift, autoregistration, and complementary wells and 2) distribution control in microwave and bipolar structures. Another feature that has not been extensively exploited is to combine the advantages of the high resolution capabilities of electric beam pattern delineation with the low lateral spread inherent in the implantation process. This talk reviews some of the general features of the characteristics of implanted layers in terms of depth distribution, radiation damage and electron activity. Implantation processes in silicon are reasonably well understood. There remain areas which require further clarification. For compound semiconductors, particularly GaAs, implantation techniques offer attractive possibilities for the fabrication of high frequency devices. In these materials, the substrate temperature during implantation and the dielectric coating required to prevent dissociation during thermal anneal play major roles.
1,188 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a review on the diffusion, solubility and electrical activity of 3D transition metals in silicon is given, which can be divided into two groups according to the respective enthalpy of formation of the solid solution.
Abstract: A review is given on the diffusion, solubility and electrical activity of 3d transition metals in silicon. Transition elements (especially, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, and Cu) diffuse interstitially and stay in the interstitial site in thermal equilibrium at the diffusion temperature. The parameters of the liquidus curves are identical for the Si:Ti — Si:Ni melts, indicating comparable silicon-metal interaction for all these elements. Only Cr, Mn, and Fe could be identified in undisturbed interstitial sites after quenching, the others precipitated or formed complexes. The 3d elements can be divided into two groups according to the respective enthalpy of formation of the solid solution. The distinction can arise from different charge states of these impurities at the diffusion temperature. For the interstitial 3d atoms remaining after quenching, reliable energy levels are established from the literature and compared with recent calculations.
987 citations
References
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TL;DR: In this paper, it was shown that at high temperatures, the electron and hole mobilities of pure silicon alloys are independent of temperature, and at lower temperatures scattering by both ionized and neutral impurity centers contribute, and the mobility is largest for the more pure samples.
Abstract: Electrical resistivity and Hall measurements have been made over the temperature range from 87\ifmmode^\circ\else\textdegree\fi{} to 900\ifmmode^\circ\else\textdegree\fi{}K on pure silicon and on silicon alloys containing from 0.0005 to 1.0 percent boron ($p$-type impurity) or phosphorus ($n$-type impurity). X-ray measurements indicate that both elements replace silicon in the lattice. It is shown that each added boron atom contributes one acceptor level, and it is likely that each added phosphorous contributes a donor level.The temperature variation of the concentrations of carriers, electrons and holes, and of their mobilities, are determined from the resistivity and Hall data for the different samples. In the intrinsic range, at high temperatures, conductivity results from electrons thermally excited from the filled band to the conduction band. The energy gap is about 1.12 ev. The product of electron and hole concentration at any temperature is ${n}_{e}{n}_{h}=7.8\ifmmode\times\else\texttimes\fi{}{10}^{32}{T}^{3}\mathrm{exp}(\frac{\ensuremath{-}12,900}{T})$In the saturation range, which occurs just below the intrinsic range, the concentrations are independent of temperature. All donors (or acceptors) are ionized and the concentration of carriers is equal to the net concentration of significant impurities ($P$ or $B$).The energy, ${E}_{A}$, required to ionize an acceptor by exciting an electron from the filled band, as determined from the temperature variation of concentration at lower temperatures, decreases with increasing impurity concentration and vanishes for concentrations above 5\ifmmode\times\else\texttimes\fi{}${10}^{18}$/${\mathrm{cm}}^{3}$. The value of ${E}_{A}$ at high dilution, 0.08 ev, is about what is expected for a hole moving in a hydrogen-like orbit about a substitutional ${B}^{\ensuremath{-}}$ ion. The decrease in ${E}_{A}$ with increase in concentration is attributed to a residual potential energy of attraction between the holes and impurity ions. The ionization energy of donors is less than that of acceptors, probably because conduction electrons have a smaller effective mass than holes. In samples with large impurity concentrations the carriers form a degenerate gas at low temperatures, and the resistivity and Hall coefficient become independent of temperature.At high temperatures the mobilities of electrons and holes approach the values ${\ensuremath{\mu}}_{e}=3.0{\ensuremath{\mu}}_{h}=15\ifmmode\times\else\texttimes\fi{}{10}^{5}{T}^{\ensuremath{-}\frac{3}{2}}(\frac{{\mathrm{cm}}^{2}}{\mathrm{volt}sec.}).$These values are determined by lattice scattering and are independent of impurity concentration. At lower temperatures scattering by both ionized and neutral impurity centers contribute, and the mobility is largest for the more pure samples. Impurity scattering increases rapidly with decrease in temperature and the mobility passes through a maximum which depends on impurity concentration. Theories of impurity scattering of Conwell and Weisskopf, of Johnson and Lark-Horovitz, and of Mott give mobilities which agree as to order of magnitude with the observed.
751 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present a blend of theory and experiment, and describe developments in this field during the past few years, including acid-base neutralization, complex ion formation, and ion pairing.
Abstract: Interactions among defects in germanium and silicon have been investigated. The solid solutions involved bear a strong resemblance to aqueous solutions insofar as they represent media for chemical reactions. Such phenomena as acid-base neutralization, complex ion formation, and ion pairing, all take place. These phenomena, besides being of interest in themselves, are useful in studying the properties of the semiconductors in which they occur. The following article is a blend of theory and experiment, and describes developments in this field during the past few years.
405 citations
230 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the acceptor level is measured in $p$-type silicon as 0.62 ev from the valence band, giving a value of band gap consistent with previous measurements by other methods.
Abstract: Measurements of the temperature dependence of resistivity and Hall coefficient in gold-doped silicon show an acceptor level at 0.54 ev from the conduction band and a donor level at 0.35 ev from the valence band. These levels appear in equal concentrations within experimental error. The location of these levels is supported by photoconductivity measurements. A search was made for other levels associated with gold centers but none were found. The distribution coefficient for gold in silicon is 2.5\ifmmode\times\else\texttimes\fi{}${10}^{\ensuremath{-}5}$. Gold was introduced into the crystals by growing from a gold-doped melt and by diffusion into single crystals at high temperatures. The concentrations of gold observed in solution after saturation at various temperatures is consistent with that expected from the distribution coefficient. Gold acts as a recombination center detectable at concentrations as low as ${10}^{12}$ per ${\mathrm{cm}}^{3}$. Because the acceptor level is so close to the center of the forbidden band, it is possible to shift the Fermi level below the middle with large ratios of gold to residual donors. The acceptor level is measured in $p$-type silicon as 0.62 ev from the valence band, giving a value of band gap consistent with previous measurements by other methods.
195 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, die Untersuchung von Systemen, die Halbmetalle enthalten, f¨r die Aufklarung feinerer Affinitatswirkungen von Bedeutung ist.
Abstract: 1. Es wird gezeigt, das die Untersuchung von Systemen, die Halbmetalle enthalten, f¨r die Aufklarung feinerer Affinitatswirkungen von Bedeutung ist.
183 citations