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Journal ArticleDOI

Species–area relationships and marine conservation

01 Feb 2003-Ecological Applications (Ecological Society of America)-Vol. 13, Iss: 1, pp 138-145
TL;DR: Because the SPAR does not require detailed knowledge of the requirements of individual species, it is still used to estimate local species richness and to predict the effects of habitat loss and fragmentation on biodiversity.
Abstract: The species–area relationship (SPAR) was the central paradigm for the emerging science of reserve design in the 1970s and early 1980s. The apparent consistency of the SPAR for natural areas suggested that it could be used to predict the number of species that would be maintained within the isolated confines of a nature reserve. This proposed use of the SPAR led to heated debates about how best to partition space among reserves. However, by the end of the 1980s, the SPAR was no longer a central issue in reserve design. There was too much uncertainty about the underlying causes of the SPAR to trust that it would hold for reserves. The SPAR was also inappropriate for the design of single-species reserves and thus did not answer the traditional needs of wildlife managers. Ecologists subsequently focused their reserve-design efforts on the management of individual populations to reduce the probability of extinction and the loss of genetic variation. Nevertheless, because the SPAR does not require detailed knowledge of the requirements of individual species, it is still used to estimate local species richness and to predict the effects of habitat loss and fragmentation on biodiversity. These applications of the SPAR may be especially useful in the design of marine reserves, which often differ in purpose from conventional terrestrial reserves and may require fundamentally different approaches.
Citations
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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Preface to the Princeton Landmarks in Biology Edition vii Preface xi Symbols used xiii 1.
Abstract: Preface to the Princeton Landmarks in Biology Edition vii Preface xi Symbols Used xiii 1. The Importance of Islands 3 2. Area and Number of Speicies 8 3. Further Explanations of the Area-Diversity Pattern 19 4. The Strategy of Colonization 68 5. Invasibility and the Variable Niche 94 6. Stepping Stones and Biotic Exchange 123 7. Evolutionary Changes Following Colonization 145 8. Prospect 181 Glossary 185 References 193 Index 201

14,171 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This paper aims to demonstrate the efforts towards in-situ applicability of EMMARM, as to provide real-time information about the response of the immune system to infectious disease and other infectious diseases.
Abstract: 2Department of Zoology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331-2914 USA 3Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138 USA 4Department of Ecology, Evolution and Marine Biology, University of California at Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106 USA WNational Center for Ecological Analysis and'Synthesis, Santa Barbara, California 93101-5504 USA

713 citations


Cites background from "Species–area relationships and mari..."

  • ...A second set of papers (Carr et al. 2003, Grantham et al. 2003, Halpern 2003, Neigel 2003, Palumbi 2003, Shanks et al. 2003) reviews existing data on several key ecological and life history features of marine species and communities....

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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Model results indicate that marine reserves could play a beneficial role in the protection of marine systems against overfishing and further modeling and analysis will greatly improve prospects for a better understanding of the potential of marine reserves for conserving biodiversity.
Abstract: We synthesize results from existing models of marine reserves to identify key theoretical issues that appear to be well understood, as well as issues in need of further exploration. Models of marine reserves are relatively new in the scientific literature; 32 of the 34 theoretical papers we reviewed were published after 1990. These models have focused primarily on questions concerning fishery management at the expense of other objectives such as conservation, scientific understanding, recreation, education, and tourism. Roughly one-third of the models analyze effects on cohorts while the remaining models have some form of complete population dynamics. Few models explicitly include larval dispersal. In a fisheries context, the primary conclusion drawn by many of the complete population models is that reserves increase yield when populations would otherwise be overfished. A second conclusion, resulting primarily from single-cohort models, is that reserves will provide fewer benefits for species with greater adult rates of movement. Although some models are beginning to yield information on the spatial configurations of reserves required for populations with specific dispersal distances to persist, it remains an aspect of reserve design in need of further analysis. Other outstanding issues include the effects of (1) particular forms of density dependence, (2) multispecies interactions, (3) fisher behavior, and (4) effects of concentrated fishing on habitat. Model results indicate that marine reserves could play a beneficial role in the protection of marine systems against overfishing. Additional modeling and analysis will greatly improve prospects for a better understanding of the potential of marine reserves for conserving biodiversity.

392 citations


Cites background from "Species–area relationships and mari..."

  • ...To incorporate multispecies dynamics into marine reserve models, one might consider the distribution of top predators as indicators of biodiversity hotspots (Reeves 2000), a description of several populations of a small number of species (Neigel 2003) or a community or habitat approach....

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Book ChapterDOI
Bert W. Hoeksema1
01 Jan 2007
TL;DR: A detailed biogeographical study of the Fungiidae, a family of corals that disperse through larvae, is used to present a model for a diversity center and the processes that may have caused its present position as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: The ranges of many tropical marine species overlap in a centre of maximum marine biodiversity, which is located in the Indo-Malayan region. Because this centre includes Malaysia, the Philippines, Indonesia, and Papua New Guinea, it has been named the East Indies Triangle. Due to its dependence on the presence of coral reefs, it has recently been referred to as the Coral Triangle. Because these reefs are severely threatened by human activities, large-scale nature conservation efforts involve the establishment of a network of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), for which it is important to know the position of this diversity hotspot. Although it is recognized where this centre is located approximately, it is unclear where its exact boundaries are. Only in a limited number of biogeographical studies, ranges and diversity centres of Indo-West Pacific (IWP) taxa have been presented. In this regard, tropical corals, marine fishes, and molluscs have received most attention. However, just for reef corals alone several different diversity centres have been proposed. The boundaries of the centre are important for reconstructing the processes that were responsible for its present shape. They may relate to the area’s climatic and geological past or to the dispersal of larvae by currents in combination with ecological constraints that may prevent their settlement. Especially, in brooding organisms, without larvae or other propagules performing long-distance dispersal, isolation mechanisms may have been important for speciation and species diversity. Information on sea-level fluctuation and the past position of coastlines and data on molecular variation between and within species may help to support models that explain the present position of the centre of marine biodiversity. A detailed biogeographical study of the Fungiidae, a family of corals that disperse through larvae, is used to present a model for a diversity centre and the processes that may have caused its present position. For each species, presence–absence data were obtained from many areas in order to plot their distribution patterns. Since several species do not occur on Sunda shelf reefs, the western part of this diversity centre may have been moulded along the Sunda shelf margin since the end of the LGM (17.000–18.000 BP). Species diversity appears to be distributed unevenly among areas within this centre, which depends on habitat heterogeneity, such as cross-shelf gradients in salinity and turbidity. Eventually, the distributions of several model taxa need to be compared in a sufficiently high number of areas in order to find a more common delineation of the Coral Triangle. Many corals are widespread and have a long fossil record. Moreover, coral reefs have not always been located in their present positions. This makes it complex to find which processes have caused a present diversity maximum. Since most species are concentrated in the eastern part of the Indo-Malayan archipelago and part of the West Pacific, this may be the area where most of the youngest species have originated, but sea-level fluctuations probably have been responsible for excluding large continental shelf seas from the Coral Triangle.

371 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: It is argued that recent findings in marine ecology suggest that this debate over marine reserves is largely unnecessary, and that a single general design of a network of reserves of moderate size and variable spacing can meet the needs and goals of most stakeholders interested in marine resources.
Abstract: Recent interest in using marine reserves for marine resource management and conservation has largely been driven by the hope that reserves might counteract declines in fish populations and protect the biodiversity of the seas. However, the creation of reserves has led to dissension from some interested groups, such as fishermen, who fear that reserves will do more harm than good. These perceived differences in the effect of marine reserves on various stakeholder interests has led to a contentious debate over their merit. We argue here that recent findings in marine ecology suggest that this debate is largely unnecessary, and that a single general design of a network of reserves of moderate size and variable spacing can meet the needs and goals of most stakeholders interested in marine resources. Given the high fecundity of most marine organisms and recent evidence for limited distance of larval dispersal, it is likely that reserves can both maintain their own biodiversity and service nearby non-reserve areas. In particular, spillover of larger organisms and dispersal of larvae to areas outside reserves can lead to reserves sustaining or even increasing local fisheries. Ultimately, the success of any reserve network requires attention to the uncertainty and variability in dispersal patterns of marine organisms, clear statements of goals by all stakeholder groups and proper evaluation of reserve performance.

327 citations

References
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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Preface to the Princeton Landmarks in Biology Edition vii Preface xi Symbols used xiii 1.
Abstract: Preface to the Princeton Landmarks in Biology Edition vii Preface xi Symbols Used xiii 1. The Importance of Islands 3 2. Area and Number of Speicies 8 3. Further Explanations of the Area-Diversity Pattern 19 4. The Strategy of Colonization 68 5. Invasibility and the Variable Niche 94 6. Stepping Stones and Biotic Exchange 123 7. Evolutionary Changes Following Colonization 145 8. Prospect 181 Glossary 185 References 193 Index 201

14,171 citations


"Species–area relationships and mari..." refers background in this paper

  • ...The most parsimonious is that the relationship is simply an effect of sampling (MacArthur and Wilson 1963, 1967)....

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  • ...In many cases, z falls within the range of 0.15 to 0.39 (May 1975), and it has been claimed that values for areas within continents tend to be lower than those for oceanic islands (MacArthur and Wilson 1963, 1967)....

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  • ...According to the equilibrium theory, the number of species within an area is a dynamic balance between the arrival of new species and the local extinction of species already present (Preston 1962, MacArthur and Wilson 1963, 1967)....

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Book
01 Jan 1967
TL;DR: The Princeton Landmarks in Biology Edition vii Preface xi Symbols Used xiii 1. The Importance of Islands 3 2. Area and Number of Speicies 8 3. Further Explanations of the Area-Diversity Pattern 19 4. The Strategy of Colonization 68 5. Invasibility and the Variable Niche 94 6. Stepping Stones and Biotic Exchange 123 7. Evolutionary Changes Following Colonization 145 8. Prospect 181 Glossary 185 References 193 Index 201
Abstract: Preface to the Princeton Landmarks in Biology Edition vii Preface xi Symbols Used xiii 1. The Importance of Islands 3 2. Area and Number of Speicies 8 3. Further Explanations of the Area-Diversity Pattern 19 4. The Strategy of Colonization 68 5. Invasibility and the Variable Niche 94 6. Stepping Stones and Biotic Exchange 123 7. Evolutionary Changes Following Colonization 145 8. Prospect 181 Glossary 185 References 193 Index 201

12,546 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
24 Mar 1978-Science
TL;DR: The commonly observed high diversity of trees in tropical rain forests and corals on tropical reefs is a nonequilibrium state which, if not disturbed further, will progress toward a low-diversity equilibrium community as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: The commonly observed high diversity of trees in tropical rain forests and corals on tropical reefs is a nonequilibrium state which, if not disturbed further, will progress toward a low-diversity equilibrium community. This may not happen if gradual changes in climate favor different species. If equilibrium is reached, a lesser degree of diversity may be sustained by niche diversification or by a compensatory mortality that favors inferior competitors. However, tropical forests and reefs are subject to severe disturbances often enough that equilibrium may never be attained.

7,795 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The importance of using 'reference' sites to assess the true richness and composition of species assemblages, to measure ecologically significant ratios between unrelated taxa, toMeasure taxon/sub-taxon (hierarchical) ratios, and to 'calibrate' standardized sampling methods is discussed.
Abstract: Both the magnitude and the urgency of the task of assessing global biodiversity require that we make the most of what we know through the use of estimation and extrapolation. Likewise, future biodiversity inventories need to be designed around the use of effective sampling and estimation procedures, especially for 'hyperdiverse' groups of terrestrial organisms, such as arthropods, nematodes, fungi, and microorganisms. The challenge of estimating patterns of species richness from samples can be separated into (i) the problem of estimating local species richness, and (ii) the problem of estimating the distinctness, or complementarity, of species assemblages. These concepts apply on a wide range of spatial, temporal, and functional scales. Local richness can be estimated by extrapolating species accumulation curves, fitting parametric distributions of relative abundance, or using non-parametric techniques based on the distribution of individuals among species or of species among samples. We present several of these methods and examine their effectiveness for an example data set. We present a simple measure of complementarity, with some biogeographic examples, and outline the difficult problem of estimating complementarity from samples. Finally, we discuss the importance of using 'reference' sites (or sub-sites) to assess the true richness and composition of species assemblages, to measure ecologically significant ratios between unrelated taxa, to measure taxon/sub-taxon (hierarchical) ratios, and to 'calibrate' standardized sampling methods. This information can then be applied to the rapid, approximate assessment of species richness and faunal or floral composition at 'comparative' sites.

4,245 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Forest Vegetation of Higher Elevations on Diorite and the Two-Phase Ef fect .......... .............. . 299 Forest Vegetation in Transects.
Abstract: II. PROCEDURE .................................. 285 Study Areas ................................. 285 Vegetation Samples and Soil Data ..... ..... 286 Arrangement of Samples in Transects .... . 286 Evaluation of Transect Techniques . ..... . 288 Transect Tables ................... ....... 289 III. VEGETATION DESCRIPTION ...... ............. 291 Low Elevations on Diorite . ... ......... .. 291 Low Elevations on Gabbro ..... ........ 297 Low Elevations on Serpentine and the Two-Phase Ef fect .......... .............. . 299 Forest Vegetation of Higher Elevations on Diorite ......................... ....... 302 Vegetation of Higher Elevations on Serpentine . . 305

3,332 citations


"Species–area relationships and mari..." refers background in this paper

  • ...Whittaker, R. H. 1960....

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  • ...These distinct scales of diversity are recognized in the definitions of Whittaker (Whittaker 1960)....

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