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Journal ArticleDOI

Standardized descriptions of primate locomotor and postural modes

TL;DR: 32 primate positional modes are defined, divided more finely into 52 postural sub-modes and 74 locomotor sub-Modes, and a nomenclature is recommended that is not dedicated to or derived from any one taxonomic subset of the primates.
Abstract: As quantitative studies on primate positional behavior accumulate the lack of a standard positional mode terminology is becoming an increasingly serious deficiency. Inconsistent use of traditional terms and inappropriate conflation of mode categories hamper interspecific and interobserver comparisons. Some workers use common terms without definition, allowing at least the possibility of misunderstanding. Other researchers coin neologisms tailored to their study species and not clearly enough defined to allow application to other species. Such neologisms may overlap, may completely encompass, or may conflate previously defined labels. The result is, at best, the proliferation of synonyms and, at worst, the creation of confusion where clarity had existed. Historical precedents have sometimes resulted in “catch-all” terms that conflate any number of kinematically different behaviors (e.g. “brachiation,” “climbing,” and “quadrumanous climbing”). We recognize three areas where distinction of positional modes has some current importance: (1) Modes that require humeral abduction should be distinguished from adducted behaviors; (2) locomotor modes that involve ascent or descent should be distinguished from horizontal locomotor modes; and (3) suspensory modes should be distinguished from supported modes. We recommend a nomenclature that is not dedicated to or derived from any one taxonomic subset of the primates. Here we define 32 primate positional modes, divided more finely into 52 postural sub-modes and 74 locomotor sub-modes.
Citations
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Journal ArticleDOI
19 Sep 2004
TL;DR: Finite functions over hereditarily finite algebraic datatypes are used to implement natural language morphology in the functional language Haskell to make it easy for linguists, who are not trained as functional programmers, to apply the ideas to new languages.
Abstract: This paper presents a methodology for implementing natural language morphology in the functional language Haskell. The main idea behind is simple: instead of working with untyped regular expressions, which is the state of the art of morphology in computational linguistics, we use finite functions over hereditarily finite algebraic datatypes. The definitions of these datatypes and functions are the language-dependent part of the morphology. The language-independent part consists of an untyped dictionary format which is used for synthesis of word forms, and a decorated trie, which is used for analysis.Functional Morphology builds on ideas introduced by Huet in his computational linguistics toolkit Zen, which he has used to implement the morphology of Sanskrit. The goal has been to make it easy for linguists, who are not trained as functional programmers, to apply the ideas to new languages. As a proof of the productivity of the method, morphologies for Swedish, Italian, Russian, Spanish, and Latin have already been implemented using the library. The Latin morphology is used as a running example in this article.

380 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The functional significance of characteristics of the shoulder and arm, elbow, wrist, and hand shared by African apes and humans, including their fossil relatives, most strongly supports theknuckle-walking hypothesis, which reconstructs the ancestor as being adapted to knuckle- walking and arboreal climbing.
Abstract: Some of the most long-standing questions in paleoanthropology concern how and why human bipedalism evolved. Over the last century, many hypotheses have been offered on the mode of locomotion from which bipedalism originated. Candidate ancestral adaptations include monkey-like arboreal or terrestrial quadrupedalism, gibbon- or orangutan-like (or other forms of) climbing and suspension, and knuckle-walking. This paper reviews the history of these hypotheses, outlines their predictions, and assesses them in light of current phylogenetic, comparative anatomical, and fossil evidence. The functional significance of characteristics of the shoulder and arm, elbow, wrist, and hand shared by African apes and humans, including their fossil relatives, most strongly supports the knuckle-walking hypothesis, which reconstructs the ancestor as being adapted to knuckle-walking and arboreal climbing. Future fossil discoveries, and a clear understanding of anthropoid locomotor anatomy, are required to ultimately test these hypotheses. If knuckle-walking was an important component of the behavioral repertoire of the prebipedal human ancestor, then we can reject scenarios on the origin of bipedalism that rely on a strictly arboreal ancestor. Moreover, paleoenvironmental data associated with the earliest hominins, and their close relatives, contradict hypotheses that place the agents of selection for bipedality in open savanna habitats. Existing hypotheses must explain why bipedalism would evolve from an ancestor that was already partly terrestrial. Many food acquisition and carrying hypotheses remain tenable in light of current evidence.

272 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
01 Jun 2007-Science
TL;DR: It is shown that the most arboreal great ape, the orangutan, is able to access supports too flexible to be negotiated otherwise, and is thus less an innovation than an exploitation of a locomotor behavior retained from the common great ape ancestor.
Abstract: Human bipedalism is commonly thought to have evolved from a quadrupedal terrestrial precursor, yet some recent paleontological evidence suggests that adaptations for bipedalism arose in an arboreal context. However, the adaptive benefit of arboreal bipedalism has been unknown. Here we show that it allows the most arboreal great ape, the orangutan, to access supports too flexible to be negotiated otherwise. Orangutans react to branch flexibility like humans running on springy tracks, by increasing knee and hip extension, whereas all other primatesdothe reverse. Human bipedalism is thus less an innovation than an exploitation of a locomotor behavior retained from the common great ape ancestor.

248 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: It is suggested that it is orthogrady in general, rather than forelimb suspend specifically, that characterizes the positional behavior of hominoids, similar to that of the African apes, and in particular, lowland gorillas.
Abstract: The Asian apes, more than any other, are restricted to an arboreal habitat. They are consequently an important model in the interpretation of the morphological commonalities of the apes, which are locomotor features associated with arboreal living. This paper presents a detailed analysis of orangutan positional behavior for all age-sex categories and during a complete range of behavioral contexts, following standardized positional mode descriptions proposed by Hunt et al. ([1996] Primates 37:363-387). This paper shows that orangutan positional behavior is highly complex, representing a diverse spectrum of positional modes. Overall, all orthograde and pronograde suspensory postures are exhibited less frequently in the present study than previously reported. Orthograde suspensory locomotion is also exhibited less often, whereas pronograde and orthograde compressive locomotor modes are observed more frequently. Given the complexity of orangutan positional behavior demonstrated by this study, it is likely that differences in positional behavior between studies reflect differences in the interplay between the complex array of variables, which were shown to influence orangutan positional behavior (Thorpe and Crompton 2005 Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 127:58-78). With the exception of pronograde suspensory posture and locomotion, orangutan positional behavior is similar to that of the African apes, and in particular, lowland gorillas. This study suggests that it is orthogrady in general, rather than forelimb suspend specifically, that characterizes the positional behavior of hominoids.

242 citations


Cites background or methods from "Standardized descriptions of primat..."

  • ...Recent advances in the standardization of positional mode classifications (Hunt et al., 1996), which advocate approaching locomotion from a biomechanical perspective, have opened the way for a comprehensive and meaningful analysis of primate positional behavior....

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  • ...The area is covered by pristine rain forest on riverine terraces located along the course of the Alas River, and was described in detail by Rijksen (1978) and van Schaik and Mirmanto (1985)....

    [...]

  • ...Once located, the orangutans were followed for a maximum of 5 consecutive days from when they left their night nest until they built their next night nest, and on at least two separate occasions....

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  • ...It is obviously impossible to differentiate every movement, and as Hunt et al. (1996) argued, neither is it desirable, as it is equally impossible to analyze the anatomical implications of each of a near-infinite roster of positional classifications....

    [...]

  • ...Thus, at the mode level, pronograde stand subsumes all pronograde compressive postures, including those classified under stand mode by Hunt et al. (1996) and contralateral and ipsilateral compression, which are submodes novel to orangutans....

    [...]

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This paper aims to compile an exhaustive list of the behavioral patterns exhibited by the chimpanzees of the Mahale Mountains National Park, Tanzania, based on the glossary compiled by Goodall (1989), but a substantial numbers of new terms have been added.
Abstract: This paper aims to compile an exhaustive list of the behavioral patterns exhibited by the chimpanzees of the Mahale Mountains National Park, Tanzania. The compilation is based on the glossary compiled by Goodall (1989), but a substantial numbers of new terms have been added. Thus, we list 316 simple anatomical terms, 81 complex anatomical terms, 37 simple functional terms, and 81 complex functional terms, in addition to 116 synonyms. The behavioral patterns are divided into eight categories on the basis of degree of universality: (1) commonly seen in both Homo and two species of Pan, (1?) commonly seen in Homo and only one species of Pan, (2) patterns common to the genus Pan but not to Homo, (3) patterns common to the chimpanzee Pan troglodytes but not the bonobo Pan paniscus, (4) patterns common to eastern (P.t. schweinfurthii) and central (Pt.troglodytes) but not western (P.t.verus) chimpanzees, (5) patterns unique to the eastern chimpanzees, P.t.schweinfurthii, (6) patterns unique to the population of Mahale, (7) patterns unique to many individuals (at least most members of an age/sex class) of M group chimpanzees, (8) patterns limited to a single (idiosyncrasy) or a few individuals of M group.It is most likely that the behavior patterns of the last common ancestor of Homo and Pan are found in Categories 1 and 1? and less likely in Categories 2 and 3.It is possible that behavior patterns belonging to Categories 5, 6 or 7 are cultures.

238 citations

References
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Book
21 Sep 1998
TL;DR: This new edition brings this coverage up to date with the latest fossil finds and most current research, and retains its grounding in the extant primate groups as the best way to understand the fossil trail and the evolution of these modern forms.
Abstract: Tables & Illustrations. Preface. Adaptation, Evolution, and Systematics. The Primate Body. Primate Lives. Prosimians. New World Anthropoids. Old World Monkeys. Apes and Humans. Primate Communities. Primate Adaptations. The Fossil Record. Primate Origins. Fossil Prosimians. Early Anthropoids. Fossil Platyrrhines. Fossil Apes. Fossil Old World Monkeys. Hominids, the Bipedal Primates. Patterns in Primate Evolution. Index.

1,599 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Comparison between several populations revealed an interesting mechanisms for the natural regulation of animal numbers and differences between Bornean and Sumatran orang-utans are discussed in relation to the zoogeography of these two islands.

696 citations

Book
01 Jan 1972

637 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: There are no consistent associations between diet and either locomotor behavior or forest utilization; rather, monkeys with similar diets show locomotor and habitat differentiation.
Abstract: The locomotor behavior, of seven sympatric species of New World monkeys—Saguinus midas midas, Saimiri sciureus, Pithecia pithecia, Chiropotes satanas chiropotes, Cebus apella apella, Alouatta seniculus, and Ateles paniscus panisus—was studied at the Raleighvallen-Voltzberg Nature Reserve in Central Surinam This paper examines the way in which locomotor behavior is related to body size and to ecological parameters such as forest stratification, forest type, and diet Locomotor behavior is clearly related to the size of the species; with increasing size, the amount of climbing increases and the amount of leaping decreases In general, larger monkeys use larger arboreal supports; however, Saguinus midas midas uses relatively larger, and Ateles paniscus paniscus relatively smaller supports than expected from body size alone Leaping is associated with use of the forest understory and with use of liane forest Other types of locomotion are associated with main canopy use in a variety of forest types There are no consistent associations between diet and either locomotor behavior or forest utilization; rather, monkeys with similar diets show locomotor and habitat differentiation

426 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
01 Dec 1989
TL;DR: For many years John Fleagle's text on the adaptation and evolution of primates and early hominoid fossils was the the text of choice for teachers and research workers alike as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: For many years John Fleagle's text on the adaptation and evolution of primates and early hominoid fossils was the the text of choice for teachers and research workers alike. Now, as the only such work in print, this new edition brings this coverage up to date with the latest fossil finds and most current research. The book retains its grounding in the extant primate groups as the best way to understand the fossil trail and the evolution of these modern forms. But this coverage is now streamlined, making reference to the many new and excellent books on living primate ecology and adaptation - a field that has burgeoned since the first edition of Primate Adaptation and Evolution. By drawing out the key features of the extant families and referring to more detailed texts, Fleagle sets the scene and also creates space for a thorough updating of the exciting developments in primate palaeontology - and the reconstruction through early hominid species - of our own human origins. Illustrated with many of the classic pictures from earlier editions - and whole new suite of illustrations, revised evolutionary trees and tables - this book remains the indispensible text on this fascinating subject. * Long-awaited revision of the standard student text on primate evolution* Full coverage of newly discovered fossils and the latest taxonomy* Over 200 new illustrations and revised evolutionary trees

398 citations