Studies of longitudinal stream profiles in Virginia and Maryland
01 Jan 1957-
About: The article was published on 1957-01-01 and is currently open access. It has received 1356 citations till now.
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Book•
01 Jan 1982
TL;DR: This book is a blend of erudition, popularization, and exposition, and the illustrations include many superb examples of computer graphics that are works of art in their own right.
Abstract: "...a blend of erudition (fascinating and sometimes obscure historical minutiae abound), popularization (mathematical rigor is relegated to appendices) and exposition (the reader need have little knowledge of the fields involved) ...and the illustrations include many superb examples of computer graphics that are works of art in their own right." Nature
24,199 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present a frame-work for a hierarchical classification system, entailed an organized view of spatial and temporal variation among and within stream systems, which is useful for research involving establishment of monitoring stations, determination of local impacts of land-use practices, generalization from site-specific data, and assessment of basinwide, cumulative impacts of human activities on streams and their biota.
Abstract: Classification of streams and stream habitats is useful for research involving establishment of monitoring stations, determination of local impacts of land-use practices, generalization from site-specific data, and assessment of basin-wide, cumulative impacts of human activities on streams and their biota. This article presents a frame-work for a hierarchical classification system, entailing an organized view of spatial and temporal variation among and within stream systems. Stream habitat systems, defined and classified on several spatiotemporal scales, are associated with watershed geomorphic features and events. Variables selected for classification define relative long-term capacities of systems, not simply short-term states. Streams and their watershed environments are classified within the context of a regional biogeoclimatic landscape classification. The framework is a perspective that should allow more systematic interpretation and description of watershed-stream relationships.
2,242 citations
Cites background from "Studies of longitudinal stream prof..."
...Bed particle size, shape, and transport dynamics are dependent on the geology , climate, vegetation, and land use of the drainage basin, as well as on the general drainage network position and slope of the stream segment under consideration (Hack 1957, Miller 1958, Knighton 1982, Douglas t977)....
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...Thus, stream systems might be classified on the basis of the biogeoclimatic region in which they reside (Warren 1979, Bailey 1983), the slope and shape of their longitudinal profiles (Hack 1957), and some index of drainage network structure (Strahler 1964), as shown in Table 3....
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...Knighton (1982), Miller (1958), and Hack (1957) describe changes in bed material size, shape, and lithology where tributaries join, or at major bedrock outcrops and lithologic contacts....
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...Within a given physiographic region, stream systems with similar geologic structure and geomorphic histories should have similar network structure and longitudinal profiles (Hack 1957)....
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...That the development and physical characteristics of a stream system are dependent upon the geologic history and climate of its drainage basin is widely recognized (for example, Hack 1957, Schumm and Lichty 1965, Douglas 1977)....
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TL;DR: In this article, the authors explore the stream power erosion model in an effort to elucidate its consequences in terms of large-scale topographic (fluvial) relief and its sensitivity to tectonic and climatic forcing.
Abstract: The longitudinal profiles of bedrock channels are a major component of the relief structure of mountainous drainage basins and therefore limit the elevation of peaks and ridges. Further, bedrock channels communicate tectonic and climatic signals across the landscape, thus dictating, to first order, the dynamic response of mountainous landscapes to external forcings. We review and explore the stream-power erosion model in an effort to (1) elucidate its consequences in terms of large-scale topographic (fluvial) relief and its sensitivity to tectonic and climatic forcing, (2) derive a relationship for system response time to tectonic perturbations, (3) determine the sensitivity of model behavior to various model parameters, and (4) integrate the above to suggest useful guidelines for further study of bedrock channel systems and for future refinement of the streampower erosion law. Dimensional analysis reveals that the dynamic behavior of the stream-power erosion model is governed by a single nondimensional group that we term the uplift-erosion number, greatly reducing the number of variables that need to be considered in the sensitivity analysis. The degree of nonlinearity in the relationship between stream incision rate and channel gradient (slope exponent n) emerges as a fundamental unknown. The physics of the active erosion processes directly influence this nonlinearity, which is shown to dictate the relationship between the uplift-erosion number, the equilibrium stream channel gradient, and the total fluvial relief of mountain ranges. Similarly, the predicted response time to changes in rock uplift rate is shown to depend on climate, rock strength, and the magnitude of tectonic perturbation, with the slope exponent n controlling the degree of dependence on these various factors. For typical drainage basin geometries the response time is relatively insensitive to the size of the system. Work on the physics of bedrock erosion processes, their sensitivity to extreme floods, their transient responses to sudden changes in climate or uplift rate, and the scaling of local rock erosion studies to reach-scale modeling studies are most sorely needed.
1,805 citations
TL;DR: In this article, a drainage basin simulation model incorporating creep and threshold slumping and both detachment-and transport-limited fluvial processes is introduced, and it is argued that fluvial erosion of natural slopes and headwater channels is dominantly detachment-limited.
Abstract: A drainage basin simulation model introduced here incorporates creep and threshold slumping and both detachment- and transport-limited fluvial processes. Fluvial erosion of natural slopes and headwater channels is argued to be dominantly detachment-limited. Such slopes undergo nearly parallel retreat and replacement with alluvial surfaces under fixed base level, in contrast with gradual slope decline for transport-limited conditions. The arrangement of divides and valleys is sensitive to initial conditions, although average morphology is insensitive. Dissected, initially flat surfaces in which downstream concavity is slight exhibit nearly parallel drainage, compared to very wandering main valleys when concavity is great. Steady state is reached after a cumulative base level drop approximately 3 times the final relief. Simulated valley systems are similar to those predicted by a previous model of optimal drainage basins. A critical value of slope divergence normalized by average slope gradient is a useful criterion for defining the valley network.
1,099 citations
01 Jan 2006
TL;DR: In this article, a method for extracting topographic indices of longitudinal profi le shape and character from digital topographic data is described, which can then be used to delineate breaks in scaling that may be associated with tectonic boundaries.
Abstract: Empirical observations from fl uvial systems across the globe reveal a consistent power-law scaling between channel slope and contributing drainage area. Theoretical arguments for both detachmentand transport-limited erosion regimes suggest that rock uplift rate should exert fi rst-order control on this scaling. Here we describe in detail a method for exploiting this relationship, in which topographic indices of longitudinal profi le shape and character are derived from digital topographic data. The stream profi le data can then be used to delineate breaks in scaling that may be associated with tectonic boundaries. The description of the method is followed by three case studies from varied tectonic settings. The case studies illustrate the power of stream profi le analysis in delineating spatial patterns of, and in some cases, temporal changes in, rock uplift rate. Owing to an incomplete understanding of river response to rock uplift, the method remains primarily a qualitative tool for neotectonic investigations; we conclude with a discussion of research needs that must be met before we can extract quantitative information about tectonics directly from topography.
967 citations
Cites background from "Studies of longitudinal stream prof..."
...…maps or field observations are available, a superposition of important lithologic contacts is also useful to determine whether regional trends in channel steepness values might be correlative with lithologic boundaries, rather than with a tectonic signal (e.g., Hack, 1957; Kirby et al., 2003, Fig....
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References
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TL;DR: The most important single factor involved in erosion phenomena and, in particular in connection with the development of stream systems and their drainage basins by aqueous erosion is called crossgrading.
Abstract: The composition of the stream system of a drainage basin can be expressed quantitatively in terms of stream order, drainage density, bifurcation ratio, and stream-length ratio.
Stream orders are so chosen that the fingertip or unbranched tributaries are of the 1st order; streams which receive 1st order tributaries, but these only, are of the 2d order; third order streams receive 2d or 1st and 2d order tributaries, and so on, until, finally, the main stream is of the highest order and characterizes the order of the drainage basin.
Two fundamental laws connect the numbers and lengths of streams of different orders in a drainage basin:
The infiltration theory of surface runoff is based on two fundamental concepts:
For a given terrain there is a minimum length x c of overland flow required to produce sufficient runoff volume to initiate erosion. The critical length x c depends on surface slope, runoff intensity, infiltration-capacity, and resistivity of the soil to erosion. This is the most important single factor involved in erosion phenomena and, in particular, in connection with the development of stream systems and their drainage basins by aqueous erosion.
The erosive force and the rate at which erosion can take place at a distance x from the watershed line is directly proportional to the runoff intensity, in inches per hour, the distance x , a function of the slope angle, and a proportionality factor K e , which represents the quantity of material which can be torn loose and eroded per unit of time and surface area, with unit runoff intensity, slope, and terrain.
The rate of erosion is the quantity of material actually removed from the soil surface per unit of time and area, and this may be governed by either the transporting power of overland flow or the actual rate of erosion, whichever is smaller. If the quantity of material torn loose and carried in suspension in overland flow exceeds the quantity which can be transported, deposition or sedimentation on the soil surface will take place.
On newly exposed terrain, resulting, for example, from the recession of a coast line, sheet erosion occurs first where the distance from the watershed line to the coast line first exceeds the critical length x c and sheet erosion spreads laterally as the width of the exposed terrain increases. Erosion of such a newly exposed plane surface initially develops a series of shallow, close-spaced, shoestring gullies or rill channels. The rills flow parallel with or are consequent on the original slope. As a result of various causes, the divides between adjacent rill channels are broken down locally, and the flow in the shallower rill channels more remote from the initial rill is diverted into deeper rills more closely adjacent thereto, and a new system of rill channels is developed having a direction of flow at an angle to the initial rill channels and producing a resultant slope toward the initial rill. This is called cross-grading.
With progressive exposure of new terrain, streams develop first at points where the length of overland flow first exceeds the critical length x c , and streams starting at these points generally become the primary or highest-order streams of the ultimate drainage basins. The development of a rilled surface on each side of the main stream, followed by cross-grading, creates lateral slopes toward the main stream, and on these slopes tributary streams develop, usually one on either side, at points where the length of overland flow in the new resultant slope direction first exceeds the critical length x c .
Cross-grading and recross-grading of a given portion of the area will continue, accompanied in each case by the development of a new order of tributary streams, until finally the length of overland flow within the remaining areas is everywhere less than the critical length x c . These processes fully account for the geometric-series laws of stream numbers and stream lengths.
A belt of no erosion exists around the margin of each drainage basin and interior subarea while the development of the stream system is in progress, and this belt of no erosion finally covers the entire area when the stream development becomes complete.
The development of interior divides between subordinate streams takes place as the result of competitive erosion, and such divides, as well as the exterior divide surrounding the drainage basin, are generally sinuous in plan and profile as a result of competitive erosion on the two sides of the divide, with the general result that isolated hills commonly occur along divides, particularly on cross divides, at their junctions with longitudinal divides. These interfluve hills are not uneroded areas, as their summits had been subjected to more or less repeated cross-grading previous to the development of the divide on which they are located.
With increased exposure of terrain weaker streams may be absorbed by the stronger, larger streams by competitive erosion, and the drainage basin grows in width at the same time that it increases in length. There is, however, always a triangular area of direct drainage to the coast line intermediate between any two major streams, with the result that the final form of a drainage basin is usually ovoid or pear-shaped.
The drainage basins of the first-order tributaries are the last developed on a given area, and such streams often have steep-sided, V-shaped, incised channels adjoined by belts of no erosion.
The end point of stream development occurs when the tributary subareas have been so completely subdivided by successive orders of stream development that there nowhere remains a length of overland flow exceeding the critical length x c . Stream channels may, however, continue to develop to some extent through headward erosion, but stream channels do not, in general, extend to the watershed line.
Valley and stream development occur together and are closely related. At a given cross section the valley cannot grade below the stream, and the valley supplies the runoff and sediment which together determine the valley and stream profiles. As a result of cross-grading antecedent to the development of new tributaries, the tributaries and their valleys are concordant with the parent stream and valley at the time the new streams are formed and remain concordant thereafter.
Valley cross sections, when grading is complete, and except for first-order tributaries, are generally S-shaped on each side of the stream, with a point of contraflexure on the upper portion of the slope, and downslope from this point the final form is determined by a combination of factors, including erosion rate, transporting power, and the relative frequencies of occurrence of storms and runoff of different intensities. The longitudinal profile of a valley along the stream bank and the cross section of the valley are closely related, and both are related to the resultant slope at a given location.
Many areas on which meager stream development has taken place, and which are commonly classified as youthful, are really mature, because the end point of stream development and erosion for existing conditions has already been reached.
When the end point of stream and valley gradation has arrived in a given drainage basin, the remaining surface is usually concave upward, more or less remembling a segment of a parabaloid, ribbed by cross and longitudinal divides and containing interfluve hills and plateaus. This is called a “graded” surface, and it is suggested that the term “peneplain” is not appropriate, since this surface is neither a plane nor nearly a plane, nor does it approach a plane as an ultimate limiting form.
The hydrophysical concepts applied to stream and valley development account for observed phenomena from the time of exposure of the terrain. Details of these phenomena of stream and valley development on a given area may be modified by geologic structures and subsequent geologic changes, as well as local variations of infiltration-capacity and resistance to erosion.
In this paper stream development and drainage-basin topography are considered wholly from the viewpoint of the operation of hydrophysical processes. In connection with the Davis erosion cycle the same subject is treated largely with reference to the effects of antecedent geologic conditions and subsequent geologic changes. The two views bear much the same relation as two pictures of the same object taken in different lights, and one supplements the other. The Davis erosion cycle is, in effect, usually assumed to begin after the development of at least a partial stream system; the hydrophysical concept carries stream development back to the original newly exposed surface.
5,348 citations
Book•
01 Jan 1953
TL;DR: In this paper, the hydraulic characteristics of stream channels are measured quantitatively and vary with discharge as simple power functions at a given river cross section, and similar variations in relation to discharge exist among the cross sections along the length of a river under the condition that discharge at all points is equal in frequency of occurrence.
Abstract: Some hydraulic characteristics of stream channels — depth, width, velocity, and suspended load — are measured quantitatively and vary with discharge as simple power functions at a given river cross section. Similar variations in relation to discharge exist among the cross sections along the length of a river under the condition that discharge at all points is equal in frequency of occurrence. The functions derived for a given cross section and among various cross sections along the river differ only in numerical values of coefficients and exponents. These functions are:
2,578 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the size of material on the bed of a stream is determined based on an analysis of the relative area covered by particles of given sizes, which is applicable to those rivers which flow on coarse material and may be waded during periods of low water.
Abstract: This determination of the size of material on the bed of a stream is based upon an analysis of the relative area covered by particles of given sizes The method is applicable to those rivers which flow on coarse material and may be waded during periods of low water Sampling consists of measuring the intermediate axis of 100 pebbles picked from the bed of the channel on the basis of a grid system From this sample a frequency distribution is drawn from which the desired size parameters are read The advantages of the areal sampling procedure over bulk sampling are (1) that it is applicable to very coarse materials, and (2) that it provides a more representative sample of an entire reach of a stream
2,300 citations
Book•
29 Aug 2010
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors investigate the laws which control the movement of bed load and determine how the quantity of load is related to the stream's slope and discharge and to the degree of communication of the debris.
Abstract: The primary purpose of the investigation was to learn the laws which control the movement of bed load, and especially to determine how the quantity of load is related to the stream's slope and discharge and to the degree of communication of the debris.
599 citations
01 Jan 1947
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present a compilation of topographic data on drainage basins in the northeastern United States, using Geological Survey topographic maps, showing that none of the topographic factors are unique, but each reflects a condition that also influences the olhers.
Abstract: _________________________.___________ 125 Introduction_____________________________________________________ 125 Cooperation and personnel_____________________________________ 127 Meteorologic factors affecting runoff _________________________________ 127 Differences in character of drainage basins____-___________-_____ __ 128 Previous studies _______________________________________________ 128 Purpose and scope of the present study____________________________ 130 Methods of work______ ________________ _ ________ 132 Maps._____________________________________ 132 Area of basins______________________________________________ 133 Stream density _______________________________________ 133 Area-distance distribution._________________________________ 134 Length of basin______.___________-__________________________ 135 Land slope______________________________________________ 135 Channel slope_________________________________________________ 138 Area-altitude distribution_______________________________ 140 Area of water surfaces________---_______-____---____________--_ 141 Summary of results_______________-.___________-______________-_ 142 Index_____________________________________ __ 157 ILLUSTRATIONS Page PLATE 2. Topographic map of Little Androscoggin River Basin above South Paris, Maine______________________________ In pocket FIGURE 48. Hydrographs of two streams in New Jersey during flood of June 1938_____________________________ 129 49. Relation between area of drainage basin and S al________ 136 50. Variation of computed slope of tributary streams with number of subareas, West River at Newfane, Vt_________________ 139 51. Typical hypsometric curves of drainage basins___________ 140 52. Graph showing general variation in stream slopes and altitude in relation to size of drainage basin__ _________________ 143 m TOPOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF DRAINAGE BASINS By WALTER B. LANGBEIN and others ABSTRACT River floods are the result of many causes, and one of the primary objectives of scientific hydrology is the segregation and evaluation of the causative factors. The climatic factor and the soil-vegetation complex are variables that exercise their principal influence on the volume of runoff. The topography of drainage basins is a sensibly permanent characteristic which influences mainly the concentration or time distribution of the discharge from a drainage basin. River systems differ in their efficiency as agencies for collecting and conducting water. In some systems, surface waters are quickly assembled, and the discharge reflects somewhat sensitively the variations of the available supply. In others, the surface drainage is longer delayed and the discharge is released slowly. As a basis for quantitative studies of these evident differences in behavior, selected topographic features for about 340 drainage basins in the northeastern United States were studied, using Geological Survey topographic maps. The data were compiled in cooperation with the Work Projects Administration of the Federal Works Agency and included information on drainage area, length of streams, stream density, land slope, channel slope, area-altitude distribution, and area of water bodies of basins that ranged in extent from 1.64 to 7,797 square miles. Considerable effort was made to assure accuracy of the computations by appropriate checks, and the results are summarized in the table at the end of this report. The results indicate that none of the topographic factors are unique, but each reflects a condition that also influences the olhers. For example, steep land slopes are generally associated with stpbp channel slopes and conversely. A significant variation of slope awd altitude with area of basin is found, and stream density tends to vary^with the land slope. INTRODUCTION This report presents a compilation of topographic data on drainage basins in the northeastern United States. The configuration of the earth reflects the impact of many natural forces, and it in turn exercises profound influence upon man. Most of these influences are so 125River floods are the result of many causes, and one of the primary objectives of scientific hydrology is the segregation and evaluation of the causative factors. The climatic factor and the soil-vegetation complex are variables that exercise their principal influence on the volume of runoff. The topography of drainage basins is a sensibly permanent characteristic which influences mainly the concentration or time distribution of the discharge from a drainage basin. River systems differ in their efficiency as agencies for collecting and conducting water. In some systems, surface waters are quickly assembled, and the discharge reflects somewhat sensitively the variations of the available supply. In others, the surface drainage is longer delayed and the discharge is released slowly. As a basis for quantitative studies of these evident differences in behavior, selected topographic features for about 340 drainage basins in the northeastern United States were studied, using Geological Survey topographic maps. The data were compiled in cooperation with the Work Projects Administration of the Federal Works Agency and included information on drainage area, length of streams, stream density, land slope, channel slope, area-altitude distribution, and area of water bodies of basins that ranged in extent from 1.64 to 7,797 square miles. Considerable effort was made to assure accuracy of the computations by appropriate checks, and the results are summarized in the table at the end of this report. The results indicate that none of the topographic factors are unique, but each reflects a condition that also influences the olhers. For example, steep land slopes are generally associated with stpbp channel slopes and conversely. A significant variation of slope awd altitude with area of basin is found, and stream density tends to vary^with the land slope. INTRODUCTION This report presents a compilation of topographic data on drainage basins in the northeastern United States. The configuration of the earth reflects the impact of many natural forces, and it in turn exercises profound influence upon man. Most of these influences are so 125 126 CONTRIBUTIONS TO HYDROLOGY, 1944 basic that they have shaped life and civilization into conformity with them. Mountains, plains, valleys, and rivers each favor or retard man's search for economic stability. Within human history the first three have remained unchanged. Rivers, on the other hand, fluctuate in size from day to day and from year to year. The amplitude and frequency of these fluctuations, so significant with respect to navigation, water power, irrigation, and such riparian developments as cities and highways, are largely determined by three separate, yet interdependent features, namely climate, physiography, and the soilvegetation complex. The interrelation of these three features with the behavior of rivers is imperfectly understood and is the subject of much investigation. This report singles out the physiography of the land for attention. The relations between the rate, volume, and fluctuations of rivers and the topographic characteristics of the land they drain and through which they flow may be readily determined after discerning examination of the terrain and river developments, but expressing them in the quantitative terms necessary for the economic design of structures for river utilization or control requires first, topographic maps, and second, records of river flow of length adequate to define the behavior. The stream-gaging program of the Geological Survey is Nationwide and now includes over 4,500 river-measurement stations, at which more than 65,000 station years of record were available in 1942. These records furnish an adequate source of material concerning stream behavior. The mapping program of the Geological Survey, also Nation-wide, is in general not so complete. Although about 50 percent of the country has been mapped, only States in the northeastern part have been completely covered; the scattered areas mapped in other States generally do not cover completely the areas in which stream-gaging has been carried OD, so that only a small fraction of them are suitable for use in comparisons of stream-flow characteristics or river morphology. In the northeastern and north-central States the range hi topography is sufllcient to furnish a basis for studying its effect on stream flow. The^topographic characteristics compiled from the maps and summarized in this report can only be evaluated by a consideration of the hydrology of stream flow, the assembling of waters in a drainage system, and the hydraulic elements that regulate velocity of flow. Many stream-flow characteristics are related either directly or indirectly to topographic features. It would seem, however, that the factors most sensitive to topographic difference would be those relating to floods. In this study, therefore, particular although not exhaustive attention is given to the correlation of flood-flow characteristics with topography. This information will serve as a basis for CHARACTERISTICS OF DRAINAGE BASINS 127 further study of such correlations and also of other characteristics, such as volume yield, erosion, and deposition of sediments. Similarly the topographic data offers basic material for studies of river morphology, as geologic evidence suggests that a significant portion of river-channel development takes place during flood. COOPERATION AND PERSONNEL, The cooperative project for the compilation of topographic data was undertaken in 1939 by the Works Progress Administration, which on April 25, 1939, became the Work Projects Administration under the Federal Works Agency. Their cooperation in organizing competent working groups is especially acknowledged. The Geological Survey sponsored the project and furnished technical direction, maps, and supplies. This work was carried on by W. B. Langbein,
301 citations