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Journal Article•DOI•

Tailoring wine yeast for the new millennium: novel approaches to the ancient art of winemaking

Isak S. Pretorius1•
Stellenbosch University1
15 Jun 2000-Yeast (Wiley)-Vol. 16, Iss: 8, pp 675-729
TL;DR: In light of the limited knowledge of industrial wine yeasts' complex genomes and the daunting challenges to comply with strict statutory regulations and consumer demands regarding the future use of genetically modified strains, this review cautions against unrealistic expectations over the short term.
Abstract: Yeasts are predominant in the ancient and complex process of winemaking. In spontaneous fermentations, there is a progressive growth pattern of indigenous yeasts, with the final stages invariably being dominated by the alcohol-tolerant strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. This species is universally known as the ‘wine yeast’ and is widely preferred for initiating wine fermentations. The primary role of wine yeast is to catalyze the rapid, complete and efficient conversion of grape sugars to ethanol, carbon dioxide and other minor, but important, metabolites without the development of off-flavours. However, due to the demanding nature of modern winemaking practices and sophisticated wine markets, there is an ever-growing quest for specialized wine yeast strains possessing a wide range of optimized, improved or novel oenological properties. This review highlights the wealth of untapped indigenous yeasts with oenological potential, the complexity of wine yeasts’ genetic features and the genetic techniques often used in strain development. The current status of genetically improved wine yeasts and potential targets for further strain development are outlined. In light of the limited knowledge of industrial wine yeasts’ complex genomes and the daunting challenges to comply with strict statutory regulations and consumer demands regarding the future use of genetically modified strains, this review cautions against unrealistic expectations over the short term. However, the staggering potential advantages of improved wine yeasts to both the winemaker and consumer in the third millennium are pointed out. Copyright # 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

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Citations
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Journal Article•DOI•
Osmotic Stress Signaling and Osmoadaptation in Yeasts

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Stefan Hohmann1•
University of Gothenburg1
01 Jun 2002-Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews
TL;DR: An integrated understanding of osmoadaptation requires not only knowledge of the function of many uncharacterized genes but also further insight into the time line of events, their interdependence, their dynamics, and their spatial organization as well as the importance of subtle effects.
Abstract: The ability to adapt to altered availability of free water is a fundamental property of living cells. The principles underlying osmoadaptation are well conserved. The yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae is an excellent model system with which to study the molecular biology and physiology of osmoadaptation. Upon a shift to high osmolarity, yeast cells rapidly stimulate a mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase cascade, the high-osmolarity glycerol (HOG) pathway, which orchestrates part of the transcriptional response. The dynamic operation of the HOG pathway has been well studied, and similar osmosensing pathways exist in other eukaryotes. Protein kinase A, which seems to mediate a response to diverse stress conditions, is also involved in the transcriptional response program. Expression changes after a shift to high osmolarity aim at adjusting metabolism and the production of cellular protectants. Accumulation of the osmolyte glycerol, which is also controlled by altering transmembrane glycerol transport, is of central importance. Upon a shift from high to low osmolarity, yeast cells stimulate a different MAP kinase cascade, the cell integrity pathway. The transcriptional program upon hypo-osmotic shock seems to aim at adjusting cell surface properties. Rapid export of glycerol is an important event in adaptation to low osmolarity. Osmoadaptation, adjustment of cell surface properties, and the control of cell morphogenesis, growth, and proliferation are highly coordinated processes. The Skn7p response regulator may be involved in coordinating these events. An integrated understanding of osmoadaptation requires not only knowledge of the function of many uncharacterized genes but also further insight into the time line of events, their interdependence, their dynamics, and their spatial organization as well as the importance of subtle effects.

1,589 citations

Journal Article•DOI•
Population genomics of domestic and wild yeasts

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Gianni Liti1, David M. Carter2, Alan M. Moses2, Alan M. Moses3, Jonas Warringer4, Leopold Parts2, Stephen A. James5, Robert P. Davey5, Ian N. Roberts5, Austin Burt6, Vassiliki Koufopanou6, Isheng J. Tsai6, Casey M. Bergman7, Douda Bensasson7, Michael J. T. O’Kelly8, Alexander van Oudenaarden8, David B. H. Barton1, Elizabeth Bailes1, Alex N. Nguyen3, Matthew Jones2, Michael A. Quail2, Ian Goodhead2, Ian Goodhead9, Sarah Sims2, Frances Smith2, Anders Blomberg4, Richard Durbin2, Edward J. Louis1 •
University of Nottingham1, Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute2, University of Toronto3, University of Gothenburg4, Norwich Research Park5, Imperial College London6, University of Manchester7, Massachusetts Institute of Technology8, University of Liverpool9
19 Mar 2009-Nature
TL;DR: Rather than one or two domestication events leading to the extant baker’s yeasts, the population structure of S. cerevisiae consists of a few well-defined, geographically isolated lineages and many different mosaics of these lineages, supporting the idea that human influence provided the opportunity for cross-breeding and production of new combinations of pre-existing variations.
Abstract: Since the completion of the genome sequence of Saccharomyces cerevisiae in 1996 (refs 1, 2), there has been a large increase in complete genome sequences, accompanied by great advances in our understanding of genome evolution. Although little is known about the natural and life histories of yeasts in the wild, there are an increasing number of studies looking at ecological and geographic distributions, population structure and sexual versus asexual reproduction. Less well understood at the whole genome level are the evolutionary processes acting within populations and species that lead to adaptation to different environments, phenotypic differences and reproductive isolation. Here we present one- to fourfold or more coverage of the genome sequences of over seventy isolates of the baker's yeast S. cerevisiae and its closest relative, Saccharomyces paradoxus. We examine variation in gene content, single nucleotide polymorphisms, nucleotide insertions and deletions, copy numbers and transposable elements. We find that phenotypic variation broadly correlates with global genome-wide phylogenetic relationships. S. paradoxus populations are well delineated along geographic boundaries, whereas the variation among worldwide S. cerevisiae isolates shows less differentiation and is comparable to a single S. paradoxus population. Rather than one or two domestication events leading to the extant baker's yeasts, the population structure of S. cerevisiae consists of a few well-defined, geographically isolated lineages and many different mosaics of these lineages, supporting the idea that human influence provided the opportunity for cross-breeding and production of new combinations of pre-existing variations.

1,425 citations

Journal Article•DOI•
Yeast and bacterial modulation of wine aroma and flavour

[...]

Jan H. Swiegers1, Eveline J. Bartowsky1, P.A. Henschke1, Isak S. Pretorius1•
Australian Wine Research Institute1
01 Jul 2005-Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research
TL;DR: A review of the most important flavour compounds found in wine, and their microbiological origin can be found in this paper, with a focus on yeast fermentation of sugar and amino acid metabolism.
Abstract: Wine is a highly complex mixture of compounds which largely define its appearance, aroma, flavour and mouth-feel properties. The compounds responsible for those attributes have been derived in turn from three major sources, viz. grapes, microbes and, when used, wood (most commonly, oak). The grape-derived compounds provide varietal distinction in addition to giving wine its basic structure. Thus, the floral monoterpenes largely define Muscat-related wines and the fruity volatile thiols define Sauvignon-related wines; the grape acids and tannins, together with alcohol, contribute the palate and mouth-feel properties. Yeast fermentation of sugars not only produces ethanol and carbon dioxide but a range of minor but sensorially important volatile metabolites which gives wine its vinous character. These volatile metabolites, which comprise esters, higher alcohols, carbonyls, volatile fatty acids and sulfur compounds, are derived from sugar and amino acid metabolism. The malolactic fermentation, when needed, not only provides deacidification, but can enhance the flavour profile. The aroma and flavour profile of wine is the result of an almost infinite number of variations in production, whether in the vineyard or the winery. In addition to the obvious, such as the grapes selected, the winemaker employs a variety of techniques and tools to produce wines with specific flavour profiles. One of these tools is the choice of microorganism to conduct fermentation. During alcoholic fermentation, the wine yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae brings forth the major changes between grape must and wine: modifying aroma, flavour, mouth-feel, colour and chemical complexity. The wine bacterium Oenococcus oeni adds its contribution to wines that undergo malolactic fermentation. Thus flavour-active yeasts and bacterial strains can produce desirable sensory results by helping to extract compounds from the solids in grape must, by modifying grape-derived molecules and by producing flavour-active metabolites. This article reviews some of the most important flavour compounds found in wine, and their microbiological origin.

1,014 citations

Cites background from "Tailoring wine yeast for the new mi..."

  • ...…(i) the type and style of wine to be made; (ii) the grape variety and viticultural practices; as well as (iii) winemaking techniques and technical requirements of the winery (reviewed in Pretorius 2000, 2003, 2004, de Barros Lopes et al. 2005, Pretorius et al. 2005, Swiegers and Pretorius 2005)....

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  • ...It has, therefore, been postulated that the deletion of the MET14 adenosylphosphosulphate kinase gene or the MRX1 methionine sulfoxide reductase gene might be the most effective way to prevent wine yeast from producing hydrogen sulfide (Pretorius and Bauer 2002, Pretorius 2003, 2004)....

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  • ...…the β-L-arabinofuranosidase (ABF2) of Aspergillus niger and a glucanase-encoding gene cassette consisting of several glucanase genes (BEG1, END1 and EXG1) were expressed in wine yeast (Pretorius 2000, van Rensburg and Pretorius 2000, Pretorius 2003, Pretorius and Bauer 2002, Pretorius 2004)....

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Journal Article•DOI•
Yeast interactions and wine flavour.

[...]

Graham H. Fleet1•
University of New South Wales1
01 Sep 2003-International Journal of Food Microbiology
TL;DR: The mechanisms by which one species/strain impacts on another in grape-wine ecosystems include: production of lytic enzymes, ethanol, sulphur dioxide and killer toxin/bacteriocin like peptides; nutrient depletion including removal of oxygen, and production of carbon dioxide; and release of cell autolytic components.

892 citations

Cites background from "Tailoring wine yeast for the new mi..."

  • ...Strains of S. cerevisiae, as well as those of other species, vary in their tolerance to ethanol stress (Fleet, 1992; Bauer and Pretorius, 2000; Bisson and Block, 2002)....

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  • ...The inhibitory effects of ethanol and short chain fatty acids on some microorganisms are well documented (Bisson, 1999; Bauer and Pretorius, 2000; Fleet, 2001)....

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  • ...Production of these acids varies significantly with yeast species and strain (Lema et al., 1996; Lambrechts and Pretorius, 2000) and could influence the sequential growth of yeasts during fermentation....

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  • ...Species of Dekkera/Brettanomyces are also associated with the production of unpleasant mousy and medicinal taints, because they can form tetrahydropyridines and volatile phenolic substances such as 4-ethylguaiacol and 4- ethyl phenol (Grbin and Henschke, 2000; Du Toit and Pretorius, 2000)....

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  • ...…grape prior to harvest and, during fermentation, they metabolise grape sugars and other components into ethanol, carbon dioxide and hundreds of secondary end-products that, collectively, contribute to the subtlety and individuality of wine character (Nykänen, 1986; Lambrechts and Pretorius, 2000)....

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Journal Article•DOI•
Yeast and its Importance to Wine Aroma - A Review

[...]

M.G. Lambrechts1, Isak S. Pretorius1•
Stellenbosch University1
01 Jan 2000-South African Journal of Enology and Viticulture
TL;DR: The importance of untapping the hidden wealth of indigenous yeast species present on grapes, and the selection and genetic development of yeast starter culture strains with improved flavour profiles are highlighted.
Abstract: The most mysterious aspect of wine is the endless variety of flavours that stem from a complex, completely non-linear system of interactions among many hundreds of compounds. In its widest sense, wine flavour refers to the overall impression of both aroma and taste components. Aroma is usually associated with odorous, volatile compounds; the bouquet of wine refers to the more complex flavour compounds which evolve as a result of fermentation, elevage and ageing. With the exception of terpenes in the aromatic grape varieties and alkoxypyrazines in the herbaceous cultivars, perceived flavour is the result of absolute amounts and specific ratios of many of these interactive compounds, rather than being attributable to a single "impact" compound. Without underestimating the complexity of these interactive effects or negating the definitive role played by the accumulated secondary grape metabolites in the varietal character of wine, this review will focus mainly on the contribution of yeast fermentation to the sensorial quality of the final product. Yeast and fermentation conditions are claimed to be the most important factors influencing the flavours in wine. Both spontaneous and inoculated wine fermentations are affected by the diversity of yeasts associated with the vineyard and winery. During the primary alcoholic fermentation of sugar, the wine yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, together with other indigenous non-Saccharomyces species, produce ethanol, carbon dioxide and a number of by-products. Of these yeast-derived metabolites, the alcohols, acetates and C4-C8 1tfatty acid ethyl esters are found in the highest concentration in wine. While the volatile metabolites contribute to the fermentation bouquet ubiquitous to all young wines, the production levels of these by-products are variable and yeast strain specific. Therefore, this article also highlights the importance of untapping the hidden wealth of indigenous yeast species present on grapes, and the selection and genetic development of yeast starter culture strains with improved flavour profiles. In the future, some winemakers may prefer to use mixtures of indigenous yeast species and tailored S. cerevisiae strains as starter cultures to reflect the biodiversity and stylistic distinctiveness of a given region. This will help winemakers to fullfil the consumer's demand for individual wines with intact local character and to ensure the survival of wine's most enthralling aspect - its endless variety.

860 citations

Cites background from "Tailoring wine yeast for the new mi..."

  • ...A Review M.G. Larnbrechts and I.S. Pretorius Institute for Wine Biotechnology and Department of Viticulture & Oenology, University of Stellenbosch, Private Bag Xl, 7602 Matieland (Stellenbosch), South Africa Submitted for publication: June 2000 Accepted for publication: August 2000 Key words: Wine aroma; wine flavour; fermentation bouquet; wine yeast The most mysterious aspect of wine is the endless variety of flavours that stem from a complex, completely non-lin ear system of interactions among many hundreds of compounds....

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  • ...…long-term biological survey programme has been launched by the Wine and Fermentation Technology Division at the ARC Infruitec-Nietvoorbij, and the Institute for Wine Biotechnology at the University of Stellenbosch (Pretorius et al., 1999; Khan et al., 2000; Van der Westhuizen et al., 2000a, b)....

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  • ...To achieve this, a compre hensive, long-term biological survey programme has been launched by the Wine and Fermentation Technology Division at the ARC Infruitec-Nietvoorbij, and the Institute for Wine Biotechnology at the University of Stellenbosch (Pretorius et al., 1999; Khan et al., 2000; Van der Westhuizen et al., 2000a, b)....

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References
More filters
Book•
The yeasts : a taxonomic study

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Cletus P. Kurtzman, Jack W. Fell, Teunis Boekhout
01 Jan 2011
TL;DR: Pt.
Abstract: Pt. 1. Classification of yeasts -- pt. 2. Importance of yeasts -- pt. 3. Phenotypic, ultrastructural, biochemical and molecular properties used for yeast classification -- pt. 4a. Classification of the Ascomycetous Taxa -- pt. 4. Descriptions of Teleomorphic Ascomycetous Genera and species -- pt. 4c. Descriptions of Anamorphic Ascomycetous Genera and species -- pt. 5a. Classification of the Basidiomycetous Taxa -- pt. 5b. Descriptions of Teleomorphic Basidiomycetous Genera and species -- pt. 5c. Descriptions of Anamorphic Basidiomycetous Genera and species -- pt. 6. Prototheca, a yeast-like alga.

2,752 citations

Book•
Molecular Biology of the Gene

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James Dewey Watson
01 Jan 1970
TL;DR: The long-awaited Fifth Edition of James D. Watson's classic text, Molecular Biology of the Gene, has been thoroughly revised and is published to coincide with the 50th anniversary of Watson and Crick's paper on the structure of the DNA double-helix as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: The long-awaited Fifth Edition of James D. Watson's classic text, Molecular Biology of the Gene, has been thoroughly revised and is published to coincide with the 50th anniversary of Watson and Crick's paper on the structure of the DNA double-helix. Though completely updated, the new edition retains the distinctive character of earlier editions that made it the most widely used book in molecular biology. Twenty-one concise chapters, co-authored by five highly respected molecular biologists, provide current, authoritative coverage of a fast-changing discipline. The completely new art is printed in full color for the first time. Divided into five parts, the first (Chemistry and Genetics) begins with an overview of molecular biology, placing the discipline in historical context and introducing the basic chemical concepts that underpin our description of molecular biology today. The second and third parts (Maintenance of the Genome and Expression of the Genome) form the heart of the book, describing in detail the basic mechanisms of DNA replication, transcription and translation. The fourth part of the book (Regulation) deals with how gene expression is regulated - from the examination of basic mechanisms that regulate gene expression in bacterial and eukaryotic systems, to a description of how regulation of gene expression lies at the heart of the process of development. Recent findings from sequencing whole genomes of several animals have revealed that they all share essentially the same genes. The last chapter in the regulation section looks at how changes in gene regulation can account for how different animals can be made up of the same genes. The final part of the book (Methods) deals with the techniques and methods used in molecular biology.

2,520 citations

Journal Article•DOI•
Unipolar cell divisions in the yeast S. cerevisiae lead to filamentous growth: Regulation by starvation and RAS

[...]

Carlos J. Gimeno1, Per O. Ljungdahl1, Cora A. Styles1, Gerald R. Fink1•
Massachusetts Institute of Technology1
20 Mar 1992-Cell
TL;DR: Pseudohyphal growth requires the polar budding pattern of a/alpha diploid cells; haploid axially budding cells of identical genotype cannot undergo this dimorphic transition.

1,195 citations

Book•
Yeast Physiology and Biotechnology

[...]

Graeme M. Walker
01 Apr 1998
TL;DR: Introduction to Yeast Cytology, Yeast Nutrition, and Yeast Metabolism.
Abstract: Introduction to Yeasts. Yeast Cytology. Yeast Nutrition. Yeast Growth. Yeast Metabolism. Yeast Technology. Index.

771 citations

"Tailoring wine yeast for the new mi..." refers background in this paper

  • ...Since the generation of petite mutants of wine yeasts occurs spontaneously at quite high rates, it is important to note that yeasts with different mtDNAs could differ in their ̄occulation characteristics, lipid metabolism, higher alcohol production and formation of ̄avour compounds [176]....

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  • ...The main steps in wine production (adapted from Walker [176]) 678 I....

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  • ...An outline of the main steps leading to ergosterol biosynthesis (adapted from Walker [176]) Tailoring wine yeast for the new millennium 697...

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  • ...The biosynthesis of glycogen (a-1,4-glucan with a-1,6 branches) is effected by glycogen synthase, which catalyzes the sequential addition of glucose from UDP-glucose to a polysaccharide acceptor in a linear a-1,4 linkage, while branching enzymes are responsible for the formation of a-1,6 branches (Figure 16) [176]....

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  • ...`vitality' refers to the measure of metabolic activity and relates to the ®tness or vigour of a starter culture [176]....

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Journal Article•DOI•
Novel sensing mechanisms and targets for the cAMP-protein kinase A pathway in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

[...]

Johan M. Thevelein1, J.H. De Winde1•
Katholieke Universiteit Leuven1
01 Sep 1999-Molecular Microbiology
TL;DR: A major issue that remains to be resolved is the precise connection between the cAMP–PKA pathway and other nutrient‐regulated components involved in the control of growth and of phenotypic characteristics correlated with growth, such as the Sch9 and Yak1 protein kinases.
Abstract: The cAMP-protein kinase A (PKA) pathway in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae plays a major role in the control of metabolism, stress resistance and proliferation, in particular in connection with the available nutrient conditions. Extensive information has been obtained on the core section of the pathway, i.e. Cdc25, Ras, adenylate cyclase, PKA, and on components interacting directly with this core section, such as the Ira proteins, Cap/Srv2 and the two cAMP phosphodiesterases. Recent work has now started to reveal upstream regulatory components and downstream targets of the pathway. A G-protein-coupled receptor system (Gpr1-Gpa2) acts upstream of adenylate cyclase and is required for glucose activation of cAMP synthesis in concert with a glucose phosphorylation-dependent mechanism. Although a genuine signalling role for the Ras proteins remains unclear, they appear to mediate at least part of the potent stimulation of cAMP synthesis by intracellular acidification. Recently, several new targets of the PKA pathway have been discovered. These include the Msn2 and Msn4 transcription factors mediating part of the induction of STRE-controlled genes by a variety of stress conditions, the Rim15 protein kinase involved in stationary phase induction of a similar set of genes and the Pde1 low-affinity cAMP phosphodiesterase, which specifically controls agonist-induced cAMP signalling. A major issue that remains to be resolved is the precise connection between the cAMP-PKA pathway and other nutrient-regulated components involved in the control of growth and of phenotypic characteristics correlated with growth, such as the Sch9 and Yak1 protein kinases. Cln3 appears to play a crucial role in the connection between the availability of certain nutrients and Cdc28 kinase activity, but it remains to be clarified which nutrient-controlled pathways control Cln3 levels.

659 citations

"Tailoring wine yeast for the new mi..." refers background in this paper

  • ...The regulation of trehalose synthesis and degradation (by trehalase) is mediated by cAMP-dependent phosphorylation mechanisms [152,153]....

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Yeast interactions and wine flavour.

[...]

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Patrizia Romano, C. Fiore, M. Paraggio, Marisa Carmela Caruso, Angela Capece 
Yeast and its Importance to Wine Aroma - A Review

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Identification of yeasts by RFLP analysis of the 5.8S rRNA gene and the two ribosomal internal transcribed spacers.

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