Ten challenges for making automation a "team player" in joint human-agent activity
TL;DR: This analysis is based on some of the principles of human-centered computing that have developed individually and jointly over the years, and is adapted from a more comprehensive examination of common ground and coordination.
Abstract: We propose 10 challenges for making automation components into effective "team players" when they interact with people in significant ways. Our analysis is based on some of the principles of human-centered computing that we have developed individually and jointly over the years, and is adapted from a more comprehensive examination of common ground and coordination.
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03 Mar 2013
TL;DR: The findings indicate that for robots to seamlessly collaborate with humans, they must change the way they plan their motion, and a formalism to mathematically define and distinguish predictability and legibility of motion is developed.
Abstract: A key requirement for seamless human-robot collaboration is for the robot to make its intentions clear to its human collaborator. A collaborative robot's motion must be legible, or intent-expressive. Legibility is often described in the literature as and effect of predictable, unsurprising, or expected motion. Our central insight is that predictability and legibility are fundamentally different and often contradictory properties of motion. We develop a formalism to mathematically define and distinguish predictability and legibility of motion. We formalize the two based on inferences between trajectories and goals in opposing directions, drawing the analogy to action interpretation in psychology. We then propose mathematical models for these inferences based on optimizing cost, drawing the analogy to the principle of rational action. Our experiments validate our formalism's prediction that predictability and legibility can contradict, and provide support for our models. Our findings indicate that for robots to seamlessly collaborate with humans, they must change the way they plan their motion.
549 citations
Cites background from "Ten challenges for making automatio..."
...As a consequence, predictability and legibility are often treated as an inseparable couple of desirable properties of robot motion [1], [2], [8]–[10]....
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TL;DR: It is concluded that physiological computing provides opportunities to innovate HCI but complex methodological/conceptual issues must be fully tackled during the research and development phase if this nascent technology is to achieve its potential.
531 citations
Cites background from "Ten challenges for making automatio..."
...As technology develops in this direction, the interaction between users and machines will shift from a master–slave dyad towards a collaborative, symbiotic relationship that requires the computer to extend awareness of the user in real-time (Klein et al., 2004; Pantic et al., 2007)....
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TL;DR: Key design interventions for improving human performance in interacting with autonomous systems are integrated in the model, including human–automation interface features and central automation interaction paradigms comprising levels of automation, adaptive automation, and granularity of control approaches.
Abstract: As autonomous and semiautonomous systems are developed for automotive, aviation, cyber, robotics and other applications, the ability of human operators to effectively oversee and interact with them when needed poses a significant challenge. An automation conundrum exists in which as more autonomy is added to a system, and its reliability and robustness increase, the lower the situation awareness of human operators and the less likely that they will be able to take over manual control when needed. The human-autonomy systems oversight model integrates several decades of relevant autonomy research on operator situation awareness, out-of-the-loop performance problems, monitoring, and trust, which are all major challenges underlying the automation conundrum. Key design interventions for improving human performance in interacting with autonomous systems are integrated in the model, including human-automation interface features and central automation interaction paradigms comprising levels of automation, adaptive automation, and granularity of control approaches. Recommendations for the design of human-autonomy interfaces are presented and directions for future research discussed.
393 citations
TL;DR: This review outlines recent research and challenges in the area, including taxonomies and qualitative models of human-automation interaction; descriptions of automation-related accidents and studies of adaptive automation; and social, political, and ethical issues.
Abstract: Automation does not mean humans are replaced; quite the opposite. Increasingly, humans are asked to interact with automation in complex and typically large-scale systems, including aircraft and air traffic control, nuclear power, manufacturing plants, military systems, homes, and hospitals. This is not an easy or error-free task for either the system designer or the human operator/automation supervisor, especially as computer technology becomes ever more sophisticated. This review outlines recent research and challenges in the area, including taxonomies and qualitative models of human-automation interaction; descriptions of automation-related accidents and studies of adaptive automation; and social, political, and ethical issues. Keywords: Driver distraction; Language: en
381 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the Human-Centered Artificial Intelligence (HCAI) is proposed as a well-designed technology that combines human control and computer automation to increase human performance, leading to wider adoption.
Abstract: Well-designed technologies that offer high levels of human control and high levels of computer automation can increase human performance, leading to wider adoption. The Human-Centered Artificial In...
357 citations
References
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01 Jan 1991
TL;DR: The issues taken up here are: coordination of content, coordination of process, and how to update their common ground moment by moment.
Abstract: GROUNDING It takes two people working together to play a duet, shake hands, play chess, waltz, teach, or make love. To succeed, the two of them have to coordinate both the content and process of what they are doing. Alan and Barbara, on the piano, must come to play the same Mozart duet. This is coordination of content. They must also synchronize their entrances and exits, coordinate how loudly to play forte and pianissimo, and otherwise adjust to each other's tempo and dynamics. This is coordination of process. They cannot even begin to coordinate on content without assuming a vast amount of shared information or common ground-that is, mutual knowledge, mutual beliefs, and mutual assumptions And to coordinate on process, they need to update their common ground moment by moment. All collective actions are built on common ground and its accumulation. We thank many colleagues for discussion of the issues we take up here.
4,144 citations
"Ten challenges for making automatio..." refers background in this paper
...Finally, effective coordination requires establishing and maintaining common ground (Clark & Brennan, 1991)....
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Book•
01 Oct 1996TL;DR: This volume offers eloquent and carefully reasoned arguments for a human-centered approach to the development and implementation of new technology in aviation.
Abstract: This volume offers eloquent and carefully reasoned arguments for a human-centered approach to the development and implementation of new technology in aviation. Part I is an overview of automation in aviation and explains both the application of automation and the concept of human-centered automation. Part II traces the evolution and course of aviation automation. This covers air traffic control and management, as well as aircraft automation. Part III discusses the role of human operators in the aviation system and human-machine integration in the future system. Part IV looks to the future; it expands on novel concepts and discusses requirements for aviation automation and its certification.
823 citations
"Ten challenges for making automatio..." refers background in this paper
...Billings (1996) and Woods (2002) have voiced their skepticism about the value of such research....
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TL;DR: The problem is that the automation is at an intermediate level of intelligence, powerfulenough to take over control that used to be done by people, but not powerful enough to handle all abnormalities.
Abstract: As automation increasingly takes its place in industry, especially high risk industry, it is often blamed for causing harm and increasing the chance of human error when failures do occur. I propose that the problem is not the presence of automation, but rather its inappropriate design. The problem is that the operations under normal operating conditions are performed appropriately, but there is inadequate feedback and interaction with the humans who must control the overall conduct of the task. When the situations exceed the capabilities of the automatic equipment, then the inadequate feedback leads to difficulties for the human controllers. The problem, I suggest, is that the automation is at an intermediate level of intelligence, powerful enough to take over control that used to be done by people, but not powerful enough to handle all abnormalities. Moreover, its level of intelligence is insufficient to provide the continual, appropriate feedback that occurs naturally among human operators. This is the source of the current difficulties. To solve this problem, the automation should either be made less intelligent or more so, but the current level is quite inappropriate. The overall message is that it is possible to reduce error through appropriate design considerations. Appropriate design should assume the existence of error, it should continually provide feedback, it should continually interact with operators in an effective manner, and it should allow for the worst situations possible. What is needed is a soft, compliant technology, not a rigid, formal one.
552 citations
"Ten challenges for making automatio..." refers background in this paper
...We are asserting that people need to have a model of the machine as an agent participating in the joint activity (Norman, 1990)—what Hoffman and Woods (2004) call the mirror-mirror principle....
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