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Journal Article•DOI•

The acute effect of stretching on the passive stiffness of the human gastrocnemius muscle tendon unit.

Christopher I. Morse1, Hans Degens1, Olivier R. Seynnes1, Constantinos N. Maganaris1, David A. Jones1, David A. Jones2 •
Manchester Metropolitan University1, University of Birmingham2
01 Jan 2008-The Journal of Physiology (J Physiol)-Vol. 586, Iss: 1, pp 97-106
TL;DR: Passive stretching was commonly used to increase limb range of movement prior to athletic performance but it is unclear which component of the muscle–tendon unit (MTU) is affected by this procedure but post‐conditioning this was not the case suggesting that at least part of the change in muscle with conditioning stretches was due to altered properties of connective tissue.
Abstract: Passive stretching is commonly used to increase limb range of movement prior to athletic performance but it is unclear which component of the muscle-tendon unit (MTU) is affected by this procedure. Movement of the myotendinous junction (MTJ) of the gastrocnemius medialis muscle was measured by ultrasonography in eight male participants (20.5 +/- 0.9 years) during a standard stretch in which the ankle was passively dorsiflexed at 1 deg s(-1) from 0 deg (the foot at right angles to the tibia) to the participants' volitional end range of motion (ROM). Passive torque, muscle fascicle length and pennation angle were also measured. Standard stretch measurements were made before (pre-) and after (post-) five passive conditioning stretches. During each conditioning stretch the MTU was taken to the end ROM and held for 1 min. Pre-conditioning the extension of the MTU during stretch was taken up almost equally by muscle and tendon. Following conditioning, ROM increased by 4.6 +/- 1.5 deg (17%) and the passive stiffness of the MTU was reduced (between 20 and 25 deg) by 47% from 16.0 +/- 3.6 to 10.2 +/- 2.0 Nm deg(-1). Distal MTJ displacement (between 0 and 25 deg) increased from 0.92 +/- 0.06 to 1.16 +/- 0.05 cm, accounting for all the additional MTU elongation and indicating that there was no change in tendon properties. Muscle extension pre-conditioning was explicable by change in length and pennation angle of the fascicles but post-conditioning this was not the case suggesting that at least part of the change in muscle with conditioning stretches was due to altered properties of connective tissue.
Citations
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Journal Article•DOI•
Vibration as an exercise modality: how it may work, and what its potential might be.

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Jörn Rittweger1, Jörn Rittweger2•
German Aerospace Center1, Manchester Metropolitan University2
01 Mar 2010-European Journal of Applied Physiology
TL;DR: Evidence suggests that acute vibration exercise seems to elicit a specific warm-up effect, and that vibration training seems to improve muscle power, although the potential benefits over traditional forms of resistive exercise are still unclear.
Abstract: Whilst exposure to vibration is traditionally regarded as perilous, recent research has focussed on potential benefits. Here, the physical principles of forced oscillations are discussed in relation to vibration as an exercise modality. Acute physiological responses to isolated tendon and muscle vibration and to whole body vibration exercise are reviewed, as well as the training effects upon the musculature, bone mineral density and posture. Possible applications in sports and medicine are discussed. Evidence suggests that acute vibration exercise seems to elicit a specific warm-up effect, and that vibration training seems to improve muscle power, although the potential benefits over traditional forms of resistive exercise are still unclear. Vibration training also seems to improve balance in sub-populations prone to fall, such as frail elderly people. Moreover, literature suggests that vibration is beneficial to reduce chronic lower back pain and other types of pain. Other future indications are perceivable.

717 citations

Cites background from "The acute effect of stretching on t..."

  • ...2001), intramuscular connective tissue (Morse et al. 2008), and possibly other passive skeletal structures that together define the range of motion for a given joint (Magnusson et al....

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  • ...It is thought that mechanical stretching can reduce the stiffness of tendon (Kubo et al. 2001), intramuscular connective tissue (Morse et al. 2008), and possibly other passive skeletal structures that together define the range of motion for a given joint (Magnusson et al. 1997)....

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Journal Article•DOI•
Acute effects of muscle stretching on physical performance, range of motion, and injury incidence in healthy active individuals: a systematic review

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David G. Behm1, Anthony J. Blazevich2, Anthony D Kay3, Malachy P. McHugh4•
St. John's University1, Edith Cowan University2, University of Northampton3, Nicholas Institute of Sports Medicine and Athletic Trauma4
01 Jan 2016-Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism
TL;DR: Considering the small-to-moderate changes immediately after stretching and the study limitations, stretching within a warm-up that includes additional poststretching dynamic activity is recommended for reducing muscle injuries and increasing joint ROM with inconsequential effects on subsequent athletic performance.
Abstract: Recently, there has been a shift from static stretching (SS) or proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) stretching within a warm-up to a greater emphasis on dynamic stretching (DS). The objective of this review was to compare the effects of SS, DS, and PNF on performance, range of motion (ROM), and injury prevention. The data indicated that SS- (-3.7%), DS- (+1.3%), and PNF- (-4.4%) induced performance changes were small to moderate with testing performed immediately after stretching, possibly because of reduced muscle activation after SS and PNF. A dose-response relationship illustrated greater performance deficits with ≥60 s (-4.6%) than with <60 s (-1.1%) SS per muscle group. Conversely, SS demonstrated a moderate (2.2%) performance benefit at longer muscle lengths. Testing was performed on average 3-5 min after stretching, and most studies did not include poststretching dynamic activities; when these activities were included, no clear performance effect was observed. DS produced small-to-moderate performance improvements when completed within minutes of physical activity. SS and PNF stretching had no clear effect on all-cause or overuse injuries; no data are available for DS. All forms of training induced ROM improvements, typically lasting <30 min. Changes may result from acute reductions in muscle and tendon stiffness or from neural adaptations causing an improved stretch tolerance. Considering the small-to-moderate changes immediately after stretching and the study limitations, stretching within a warm-up that includes additional poststretching dynamic activity is recommended for reducing muscle injuries and increasing joint ROM with inconsequential effects on subsequent athletic performance.

425 citations

Cites background from "The acute effect of stretching on t..."

  • ...Acute increases after SS have been attributed largely to concomitant increases in the capacity to tolerate loading prior to stretch termination (i.e., stretch tolerance) (Magnusson et al. 1996a) and/or to changes in mechanical properties (i.e., reduced muscle stiffness) (Morse et al. 2008)....

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  • ...…muscle stretching theoretically could reduce the force transfer efficiency from the contractile component to the skeleton (e.g., endo-, epi-, and perimysial transmission) (Huijing 1999) alongside the stretch-induced reductions in muscle stiffness (Kay and Blazevich 2009; Morse et al. 2008)....

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Journal Article•DOI•
An acute bout of self-myofascial release increases range of motion without a subsequent decrease in muscle activation or force.

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Graham Z. MacDonald1, Michael D.H. Penney, Michelle E. Mullaley, Amanda L. Cuconato1, Corey D.J. Drake, David G. Behm, Duane C. Button •
Memorial University of Newfoundland1
01 Mar 2013-Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
TL;DR: In conclusion, an acute bout of SMR of the quadriceps was an effective treatment to acutely enhance knee joint ROM without a concomitant deficit in muscle performance.
Abstract: Foam rolling is thought to improve muscular function, performance, overuse, and joint range of motion (ROM); however, there is no empirical evidence demonstrating this. Thus, the objective of the study was to determine the effect of self-myofascial release (SMR) via foam roller application on knee extensor force and activation and knee joint ROM. Eleven healthy male (height 178.9 ± 3.5 cm, mass 86.3 ± 7.4 kg, age 22.3 ± 3.8 years) subjects who were physically active participated. Subjects' quadriceps maximum voluntary contraction force, evoked force and activation, and knee joint ROM were measured before, 2 minutes, and 10 minutes after 2 conditions: (a) 2, 1-minute trials of SMR of the quadriceps via a foam roller and (b) no SMR (Control). A 2-way analysis of variance (condition × time) with repeated measures was performed on all dependent variables recorded in the precondition and postcondition tests. There were no significant differences between conditions for any of the neuromuscular dependent variables. However, after foam rolling, subjects' ROM significantly (p < 0.001) increased by 10° and 8° at 2 and 10 minutes, respectively. There was a significant (p < 0.01) negative correlation between subjects' force and ROM before foam rolling, which no longer existed after foam rolling. In conclusion, an acute bout of SMR of the quadriceps was an effective treatment to acutely enhance knee joint ROM without a concomitant deficit in muscle performance.

320 citations

Cites background from "The acute effect of stretching on t..."

  • ...However, recent research demonstrating the effects of acute (25) and chronic (26) static stretching on muscle-tendon unit (MTU) stiffness has shown that decreased MTU stiffness after static stretching was not because of changes in fascicle length but rather a combination of muscle stiffness and changes to the surrounding connective tissue (i....

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Journal Article•DOI•
Moderate-duration static stretch reduces active and passive plantar flexor moment but not Achilles tendon stiffness or active muscle length

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Anthony D Kay1, Anthony J. Blazevich•
University of Northampton1
01 Apr 2009-Journal of Applied Physiology
TL;DR: Data indicate that the stretching protocol used in this study induced losses in concentric moment that were accompanied by, and related to, reductions in neuromuscular activity, but they were not associated with alterations in tendon stiffness or shorter muscle operating length.
Abstract: The effects of static stretch on muscle and tendon mechanical properties and muscle activation were studied in fifteen healthy human volunteers. Peak active and passive moment data were recorded during plantar flexion trials on an isokinetic dynamometer. Electromyography (EMG) monitoring of the triceps surae muscles, real-time motion analysis of the lower leg, and ultrasound imaging of the Achilles-medial gastrocnemius muscle-tendon junction were simultaneously conducted. Subjects performed three 60-s static stretches before being retested 2 min and 30 min poststretch. There were three main findings in the present study. First, peak concentric moment was significantly reduced after stretch; 60% of the deficit recovered 30 min poststretch. This was accompanied by, and correlated with (r = 0.81; P < 0.01) reductions in peak triceps surae EMG amplitude, which was fully recovered at 30 min poststretch. Second, Achilles tendon length was significantly shorter during the concentric contraction after stretch and at 30 min poststretch; however, no change in tendon stiffness was detected. Third, passive joint moment was significantly reduced after stretch, and this was accompanied by significant reductions in medial gastrocnemius passive muscle stiffness; both measures fully recovered by 30 min poststretch. These data indicate that the stretching protocol used in this study induced losses in concentric moment that were accompanied by, and related to, reductions in neuromuscular activity, but they were not associated with alterations in tendon stiffness or shorter muscle operating length. Reductions in passive moment were associated with reductions in muscle stiffness, whereas tendon mechanics were unaffected by the stretch. Importantly, the impact on mechanical properties and neuromuscular activity was minimal at 30 min poststretch.

152 citations

Cites background or result from "The acute effect of stretching on t..."

  • ...In contrast, 5 min of plantar flexor stretch (27) resulted in Achilles stiffness remaining unaffected while gastrocnemius medialis (GM) muscle stiffness decreased....

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  • ...(27), who reported similar decrements in passive joint moment accompanied by reduced muscle stiffness but unaltered tendon stiffness....

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  • ...(27) measured tendon elongation at the MTJ, whereas Kubo et al....

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  • ...The reductions in passive moment were accompanied by reductions in muscle stiffness, while tendon stiffness remained unaffected by the stretch, which is in agreement with previous data (27) showing that increased joint flexion can be attributed to decreased muscle stiffness....

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  • ...(27), who found no change in tendon stiffness following 5 min stretch, but they are not in agreement with Kubo et al....

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Journal Article•DOI•
The time course of musculotendinous stiffness responses following different durations of passive stretching.

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Eric D. Ryan1, Travis W. Beck1, Trent J. Herda1, Holly R. Hull2, Michael J. Hartman3, Pablo B. Costa1, Jason M. DeFreitas1, Jeffery R. Stout1, Joel T. Cramer1 •
University of Oklahoma1, Columbia University2, Florida Atlantic University3
01 Oct 2008-Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy
TL;DR: Practical durations of passive stretching resulted in significant decreases in MTS; however, these changes return to baseline levels within 10 to 20 minutes.
Abstract: Study Design Repeated-measures experimental design. Objective To examine the acute effects of different durations of passive stretching on the time course of musculotendinous stiffness (MTS) responses in the plantar flexor muscles. Background Stretching is often implemented prior to exercise or athletic competition, with the intent to reduce the risk of injury via decreases in MTS. Methods and Measures Twelve subjects (mean ± SD age, 24 ± 3 years; stature, 169 ± 12 cm; mass, 71 ± 17 kg) participated in 4 randomly ordered experimental trials: control with no stretching, and 2 minutes (2min), 4 minutes (4min ), and 8 minutes (8min) of passive stretching. The passive-stretching trials involved progressive repetitions of 30-second passive stretches, while the control trial involved 15 minutes of resting. MTS assessments were conducted before (prestretching), immediately after (poststretching), and at 10, 20, and 30 minutes poststretching on a Biodex System 3 isokinetic dynamometer. Results MTS decreased (P<.0...

151 citations

References
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Journal Article•DOI•
Functional and clinical significance of skeletal muscle architecture.

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Richard L. Lieber1, Jan Fridén2•
Veterans Health Administration1, University of Gothenburg2
01 Nov 2000-Muscle & Nerve
TL;DR: The basic architectural properties of human upper and lower extremity muscles are described and the ability of muscles to change their architecture in response to immobilization, eccentric exercise, and surgical tendon transfer is reviewed.
Abstract: Skeletal muscle architecture is the structural property of whole muscles that dominates their function. This review describes the basic architectural properties of human upper and lower extremity muscles. The designs of various muscle groups in humans and other species are analyzed from the point of view of optimizing function. Muscle fiber arrangement and motor unit arrangement is discussed in terms of the control of movement. Finally, the ability of muscles to change their architecture in response to immobilization, eccentric exercise, and surgical tendon transfer is reviewed. Future integrative physiological studies will provide insights into the mechanisms by which such adaptations occur. It is likely that muscle fibers transduce both stress and strain and respond by modifying sarcomere number in a way more suited to the new biomechanical environment.

1,015 citations

Journal Article•DOI•
Altered reflex sensitivity after repeated and prolonged passive muscle stretching

[...]

Janne Avela1, Heikki Kyröläinen1, Paavo V. Komi1•
University of Jyväskylä1
01 Apr 1999-Journal of Applied Physiology
TL;DR: Evidence is presented that the mechanism that decreases the sensitivity of short-latency reflexes can be activated because of RPS, and the origin of this system seems to be a reduction in the activity of the large-diameter afferents, resulting from the reduced sensitivity of the muscle spindles to repeated stretch.
Abstract: Experiments were carried out to test the effect of prolonged and repeated passive stretching (RPS) of the triceps surae muscle on reflex sensitivity. The results demonstrated a clear deterioration ...

535 citations

"The acute effect of stretching on t..." refers background in this paper

  • ...More compliant connective tissue may reduce the sensitivity of muscle spindles (Avela et al. 1999), possibly reducing the speed of muscle activation and this may account for the reported reductions in power output during sprinting after stretching exercise (Nelson et al. 2005)....

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  • ...More compliant connective tissue may reduce the sensitivity of muscle spindles (Avela et al. 1999), possibly reducing the speed of muscle activation and this may account for the reported reductions in power output during sprinting after stretching exercise (Nelson et al....

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Journal Article•DOI•
Architectural and functional features of human triceps surae muscles during contraction

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Yasuo Kawakami1, Y. Ichinose1, Tetsuo Fukunaga1•
University of Tokyo1
01 Aug 1998-Journal of Applied Physiology
TL;DR: Different lengths and angles of fascicles, and their changes by contraction, might be related to differences in force-producing capabilities of the muscles and elastic characteristics of tendons and aponeuroses.
Abstract: Architectural properties of the triceps surae muscles were determined in vivo for six men. The ankle was positioned at 15° dorsiflexion (−15°) and 0, 15, and 30° plantar flexion, with the knee set ...

510 citations

"The acute effect of stretching on t..." refers result in this paper

  • ...This is considerably more than the 27% reported by Herbert et al. (2002) but is similar to values of 43–46% reported in the GM muscle by others (Kawakami et al. 1998; Maganaris, 2003)....

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  • ...(2002) but is similar to values of 43–46% reported in the GM muscle by others (Kawakami et al. 1998; Maganaris, 2003)....

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Journal Article•DOI•
Passive extensibility of skeletal muscle: review of the literature with clinical implications.

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Richard L. Gajdosik1•
University of Montana1
01 Feb 2001-Clinical Biomechanics
TL;DR: The purpose of this article was to review the literature on passive extensibility of skeletal muscle with reference to its anatomic and physiologic properties, mechanisms of adaptations and clinical implications, and to contribute to the development of new intervention strategies designed to promote the passive Muscle Extensibility that enhances total muscle function.

506 citations

"The acute effect of stretching on t..." refers background in this paper

  • ...Magnusson et al. (1997) proposed that the material properties of the muscle contribute to passive torque and Gajdosik (2001) suggested, more specifically, that C© 2008 The Authors....

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  • ...Likewise, Gajdosik (2001) suggested that lengthening deformation of the connective tissues within the muscle belly (endomysium, perimysium and epimysium) could influence passive stiffness....

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Journal Article•DOI•
In vivo human tendon mechanical properties.

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Constantinos N. Maganaris1, John P. Paul1•
University of Strathclyde1
01 Nov 1999-The Journal of Physiology
TL;DR: Results are in agreement with previous reports on in vitro testing of isolated tendons and suggest that under physiological loading the TA tendon operates within the elastic ‘toe’ region.
Abstract: 1. The aim of the present study was to measure the mechanical properties of human tibialis anterior (TA) tendon in vivo. 2. Measurements were taken in five males at the neutral ankle position and involved: (a) isometric dynamometry upon increasing the voltage of percutaneous electrical stimulation of the TA muscle, (b) real-time ultrasonography for measurements of the TA tendon origin displacement during contraction and tendon cross-sectional area, and (c) magnetic resonance imaging for estimation of the TA tendon length and moment arm. 3. From the measured joint moments and estimated moment arms, the values of tendon force were calculated and divided by cross-sectional area to obtain stress values. The displacements of the TA tendon origin from rest to all contraction intensities were normalized to tendon length to obtain strain values. From the data obtained, the tendon force-displacement and stress-strain relationships were determined and the tendon stiffness and Young's modulus were calculated. 4. Tendon force and stress increased curvilinearly as a function of displacement and strain, respectively. The tendon force and displacement at maximum isometric load were 530 N and 4.1 mm, and the corresponding stress and strain values were 25 MPa and 2.5 %, respectively. The tendon stiffness and Young's modulus at maximum isometric load were 161 N mm-1 and 1.2 GPa, respectively. These results are in agreement with previous reports on in vitro testing of isolated tendons and suggest that under physiological loading the TA tendon operates within the elastic 'toe' region.

476 citations

"The acute effect of stretching on t..." refers background or methods in this paper

  • ...The MTJ was identified as described by Maganaris & Paul (1999) and visualized as a continuous sagittal plane ultrasound image using a 10 cm, 7.5 MHz linear-array probe, which was time locked with the torque and goniometer outputs....

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  • ...The stiffness of the tendon can be estimated by ultrasonography, following the movement of the myotendinous junction during a ramped isometric contraction (Maganaris & Paul, 1999)....

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Trending Questions (1)
What are the effects of stretching between strength training sessions?"?

Stretching between strength training sessions can reduce passive stiffness of the muscle-tendon unit, increase range of motion by 17%, and potentially impact muscle force and power output.

See answers from 5 other papers