The anatomy of anatomy: A review for its modernization
TL;DR: Alternative resources and strategies are discussed in an attempt to tackle genuine concerns of diminished allotted dissection time and the number of qualified anatomy instructors, which will eventually deteriorate the quality of education.
Abstract: Anatomy has historically been a cornerstone in medical education regardless of nation or specialty. Until recently, dissection and didactic lectures were its sole pedagogy. Teaching methodology has been revolutionized with more reliance on models, imaging, simulation, and the Internet to further consolidate and enhance the learning experience. Moreover, modern medical curricula are giving less importance to anatomy education and to the acknowledged value of dissection. Universities have even abandoned dissection completely in favor of user-friendly multimedia, alternative teaching approaches, and newly defined priorities in clinical practice. Anatomy curriculum is undergoing international reformation but the current framework lacks uniformity among institutions. Optimal learning content can be categorized into the following modalities: (1) dissection/prosection, (2) interactive multimedia, (3) procedural anatomy, (4) surface and clinical anatomy, and (5) imaging. The importance of multimodal teaching, with examples suggested in this article, has been widely recognized and assessed. Nevertheless, there are still ongoing limitations in anatomy teaching. Substantial problems consist of diminished allotted dissection time and the number of qualified anatomy instructors, which will eventually deteriorate the quality of education. Alternative resources and strategies are discussed in an attempt to tackle these genuine concerns. The challenges are to reinstate more effective teaching and learning tools while maintaining the beneficial values of orthodox dissection. The UK has a reputable medical education but its quality could be improved by observing international frameworks. The heavy penalty of not concentrating on sufficient anatomy education will inevitably lead to incompetent anatomists and healthcare professionals, leaving patients to face dire repercussions. Anat Sci Educ 3: 83–93, 2010. © 2010 American Association of Anatomists.
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TL;DR: 3D printing offers many advantages over plastination as it allows rapid production of multiple copies of any dissected specimen, at any size scale and should be suitable for any teaching facility in any country, thereby avoiding some of the cultural and ethical issues associated with cadaver specimens either in an embalmed or plastinated form.
Abstract: The teaching of anatomy has consistently been the subject of societal controversy, especially in the context of employing cadaveric materials in professional medical and allied health professional training. The reduction in dissection-based teaching in medical and allied health professional training programs has been in part due to the financial considerations involved in maintaining bequest programs, accessing human cadavers and concerns with health and safety considerations for students and staff exposed to formalin-containing embalming fluids. This report details how additive manufacturing or three-dimensional (3D) printing allows the creation of reproductions of prosected human cadaver and other anatomical specimens that obviates many of the above issues. These 3D prints are high resolution, accurate color reproductions of prosections based on data acquired by surface scanning or CT imaging. The application of 3D printing to produce models of negative spaces, contrast CT radiographic data using segmentation software is illustrated. The accuracy of printed specimens is compared with original specimens. This alternative approach to producing anatomically accurate reproductions offers many advantages over plastination as it allows rapid production of multiple copies of any dissected specimen, at any size scale and should be suitable for any teaching facility in any country, thereby avoiding some of the cultural and ethical issues associated with cadaver specimens either in an embalmed or plastinated form. Anat Sci Educ 7: 479–486. © 2014 American Association of Anatomists.
480 citations
Cites background from "The anatomy of anatomy: A review fo..."
...Many hold the view that cadaveric dissection is the key component of teaching anatomy (Ramsey-Stewart et al., 2010; Sugand et al., 2010) and the consequences for trainees/practitioners not having competent anatomical knowledge has recently been emphasized (Johnson et al., 2012)....
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TL;DR: The range of teaching resources and strategies used in anatomy education are reviewed with the aim of coming up with suggestions about the best teaching practices and it is suggested that certain professions would have more benefit from certain educational methods or strategies than others.
Abstract: In this report we review the range of teaching resources and strategies used in anatomy education with the aim of coming up with suggestions about the best teaching practices in this area. There is much debate about suitable methods of delivering anatomical knowledge. Competent clinicians, particularly surgeons, need a deep understanding of anatomy for safe clinical procedures. However, because students have had very limited exposure to anatomy during clinical training, there is a concern that medical students are ill-prepared in anatomy when entering clerkships and residency programs. Therefore, developing effective modalities for teaching anatomy is essential to safe medical practice. Cadaver-based instruction has survived as the main instructional tool for hundreds of years, however, there are differing views on whether full cadaver dissection is still appropriate for a modern undergraduate training. The limitations on curricular time, trained anatomy faculty and resources for gross anatomy courses in integrated or/and system-based curricula, have led many medical schools to abandon costly and time-consuming dissection-based instruction in favour of alternative methods of instruction including prosection, medical imaging, living anatomy and multimedia resources. To date, no single teaching tool has been found to meet curriculum requirements. The best way to teach modern anatomy is by combining multiple pedagogical resources to complement one another, students appear to learn more effectively when multimodal and system-based approaches are integrated. Our review suggests that certain professions would have more benefit from certain educational methods or strategies than others. Full body dissection would be best reserved for medical students, especially those with surgical career intentions, while teaching based on prosections and plastination is more suitable for dental, pharmacy and allied health science students. There is a need to direct future research towards evaluation of the suitability of the new teaching methodologies in new curricula and student perceptions of integrated and multimodal teaching paradigms, and the ability of these to satisfy learning outcomes.
457 citations
Cites background from "The anatomy of anatomy: A review fo..."
...Computer based learning (CBL) With recent advances in technology, reductions in teaching ime, increasing class size and increasing costs of cadaver-based nstruction, CBL resources are increasingly used in anatomy urricula to foster student learning (Tam et al., 2010; Azer and izenberg, 2007)....
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...…lectures and textbooks over CBL resources Azer and Eizenberg, 2007; Kerby et al., 2011; Davis et al., 2014). imilarly many anatomists believe that cadaver-based instruction s still a prerequisite for optimal training even with the use of CBL esources (Aziz et al., 2002; Tam et al., 2010)....
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...…proof that CBL alone s better approach than traditional teaching methods (Mcnulty t al., 2004; Khot et al., 2013), evidence shows that learning natomy using CBL can enhance learning by supplementing rather han replacing the traditional teaching methods (Tam et al., 2010; urosaro et al., 2008)....
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TL;DR: The goal is to discuss the current and emerging applications of 3D printing in medicine, a brief summary on additive manufacturing technologies and available printable materials, and the technological and regulatory barriers that are slowing down the full implementation of 3d printing in the medical field.
Abstract: Three-dimensional (3D) printing enables the production of anatomically matched and patient-specific devices and constructs with high tunability and complexity. It also allows on-demand fabrication with high productivity in a cost-effective manner. As a result, 3D printing has become a leading manufacturing technique in healthcare and medicine for a wide range of applications including dentistry, tissue engineering and regenerative medicine, engineered tissue models, medical devices, anatomical models and drug formulation. Today, 3D printing is widely adopted by the healthcare industry and academia. It provides commercially available medical products and a platform for emerging research areas including tissue and organ printing. In this review, our goal is to discuss the current and emerging applications of 3D printing in medicine. A brief summary on additive manufacturing technologies and available printable materials is also given. The technological and regulatory barriers that are slowing down the full implementation of 3D printing in the medical field are also discussed.
355 citations
TL;DR: The results suggest that physical models may hold a significant advantage over alternative learning resources in enhancing visuospatial and 3D understanding of complex anatomical architecture, and that 3D computer models have significant limitations with regards to 3D learning.
Abstract: Three-dimensional (3D) information plays an important part in medical and veterinary education Appreciating complex 3D spatial relationships requires a strong foundational understanding of anatomy and mental 3D visualization skills Novel learning resources have been introduced to anatomy training to achieve this Objective evaluation of their comparative efficacies remains scarce in the literature This study developed and evaluated the use of a physical model in demonstrating the complex spatial relationships of the equine foot It was hypothesized that the newly developed physical model would be more effective for students to learn magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) anatomy of the foot than textbooks or computer-based 3D models Third year veterinary medicine students were randomly assigned to one of three teaching aid groups (physical model; textbooks; 3D computer model) The comparative efficacies of the three teaching aids were assessed through students' abilities to identify anatomical structures on MR images Overall mean MRI assessment scores were significantly higher in students utilizing the physical model (8639%) compared with students using textbooks (6261%) and the 3D computer model (6368%) (P < 0001), with no significant difference between the textbook and 3D computer model groups (P = 0685) Student feedback was also more positive in the physical model group compared with both the textbook and 3D computer model groups Our results suggest that physical models may hold a significant advantage over alternative learning resources in enhancing visuospatial and 3D understanding of complex anatomical architecture, and that 3D computer models have significant limitations with regards to 3D learning Anat Sci Educ 6: 216–224 © 2013 American Association of Anatomists
281 citations
TL;DR: The aim of the present study is to assess the impact of a traditional method like cadaveric dissection in teaching/learning anatomy at present times when medical schools are inclining towards student‐centered, integrated, clinical application models.
Abstract: Anatomical education has been undergoing reforms in line with the demands of medical profession. The aim of the present study is to assess the impact of a traditional method like cadaveric dissection in teaching/learning anatomy at present times when medical schools are inclining towards student-centered, integrated, clinical application models. The article undertakes a review of literature and analyzes the observations made therein reflecting on the relevance of cadaveric dissection in anatomical education of 21st century. Despite the advent of modern technology and evolved teaching methods, dissection continues to remain a cornerstone of anatomy curriculum. Medical professionals of all levels believe that dissection enables learning anatomy with relevant clinical correlates. Moreover dissection helps to build discipline independent skills which are essential requirements of modern health care setup. It has been supplemented by other teaching/learning methods due to limited availability of cadavers in some countries. However, in the developing world due to good access to cadavers, dissection based teaching is central to anatomy education till date. Its utility is also reflected in the perception of students who are of the opinion that dissection provides them with a foundation critical to development of clinical skills. Researchers have even suggested that time has come to reinstate dissection as the core method of teaching gross anatomy to ensure safe medical practice. Nevertheless, as dissection alone cannot provide uniform learning experience hence needs to be complemented with other innovative learning methods in the future education model of anatomy. Anat Sci Educ 10: 286-299. © 2016 American Association of Anatomists.
251 citations
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01 Jan 1969TL;DR: A review of the book "Management of Organizational Behavior: Utilizing Human Resources, by Paul Hersey and Kenneth H. Blanchard" is given in this article.
Abstract: The article presents a review of the book “Management of Organizational Behavior: Utilizing Human Resources,” by Paul Hersey and Kenneth H. Blanchard.
4,190 citations
TL;DR: Time to stop arguing about the process and examine the outcomes of the EU referendum.
Abstract: Problem based learning is used in many medical schools in the United Kingdom and worldwide. This article describes this method of learning and teaching in small groups and explains why it has had an important impact on medical education.
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The group learning process: acquiring desirable learning skills
In problem based learning (PBL) students use “triggers” from the problem case or scenario to define their own learning objectives. Subsequently they do independent, self directed study before returning to the group to discuss and refine their acquired knowledge. Thus, PBL is not about problem solving per se, but rather it uses appropriate problems to increase knowledge and understanding. The process is clearly defined, and the several variations that exist all follow a similar series of steps.
#### Generic skills and attitudes
Group learning facilitates not only the acquisition of knowledge but also several other desirable attributes, such as communication skills, teamwork, problem solving, independent responsibility for learning, sharing information, and respect for others. PBL can therefore be thought of as a small group teaching method that combines the acquisition of knowledge with the development of generic skills and attitudes. Presentation of clinical material as the stimulus for learning enables students to understand the relevance of underlying scientific knowledge and principles in clinical practice.
However, when PBL is introduced into a curriculum, several other issues for curriculum design and implementation need to be tackled. PBL is generally introduced in the context of a defined core curriculum and integration of basic and clinical sciences. It has implications for staffing and learning resources and demands a different approach to timetabling, workload, and assessment. PBL is often used to deliver core material in non-clinical parts of the …
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1,860 citations
01 Jan 1993
Abstract: Management of organizational behavior: utilizing human resources , Management of organizational behavior: utilizing human resources , مرکز فناوری اطلاعات و اطلاع رسانی کشاورزی
1,171 citations
TL;DR: In this case-control study, disciplinary action among practicing physicians by medical boards was strongly associated with unprofessional behavior in medical school and students with the strongest association were those who were described as irresponsible or as having diminished ability to improve their behavior.
Abstract: Background Evidence supporting professionalism as a critical measure of competence in medical education is limited In this case–control study, we investigated the association of disciplinary action against practicing physicians with prior unprofessional behavior in medical school We also examined the specific types of behavior that are most predictive of disciplinary action against practicing physicians with unprofessional behavior in medical school Methods The study included 235 graduates of three medical schools who were disciplined by one of 40 state medical boards between 1990 and 2003 (case physicians) The 469 control physicians were matched with the case physicians according to medical school and graduation year Predictor variables from medical school included the presence or absence of narratives describing unprofessional behavior, grades, standardized-test scores, and demographic characteristics Narratives were assigned an overall rating for unprofessional behavior Those that met the thresh
718 citations
TL;DR: Comparison between the data sets suggests several key points some of which include: decreased total hours in gross anatomy and neuroscience/neuroanatomy courses, increased use of virtual microscopy in microscopic anatomy courses, and decreased laboratory hours in embryology courses.
Abstract: At most institutions, education in the anatomical sciences has undergone several changes over the last decade. To identify the changes that have occurred in gross anatomy, microscopic anatomy, neuroscience/neuroanatomy, and embryology courses, directors of these courses were asked to respond to a survey with questions pertaining to total course hours, hours of lecture, and hours of laboratory, whether the course was part of an integrated program or existed as a stand-alone course, and what type of laboratory experience occurred in the course. These data were compared to data obtained from a similar survey in 2002. Comparison between the data sets suggests several key points some of which include: decreased total hours in gross anatomy and neuroscience/neuroanatomy courses, increased use of virtual microscopy in microscopic anatomy courses, and decreased laboratory hours in embryology courses.
681 citations