The assessment of the amount of fat in the human body from measurements of skinfold thickness
TL;DR: A table gives the percentage of the body-weight as fat from the measurement of skin-fold thickness, which was calculated to predict body fat from skinfolds with an error of about ±3.5%.
Abstract: fold thickness. A simple method of assessing quantitatively the fat content of the human body, which could be used not only in laboratories and in hospital, but in field studies and in general medical practice, would be invaluable. Methods in use at present, based on measurements of body density, body water or body potassium, can be applied only in the laboratory and usually to small numbers of subjects. Several previous papers have suggested relationships between one of the accepted methods of determining body fat and a simpler technique which could be widely applied. As early as 1921, Matiegka (1921) formulated an equation for calculating body fat from measurements of surface area and six skinfold thicknesses. Brotek & Keys (1951) were the first to use the relationship between skinfold thickness and body density for assessing fat content. The skinfolds chosen were not ideal and their formula has not been widely used. Pascale, Grossman, Sloane & Frankel (1956) in the USA produced an equation, and PaPizkovL (1961 a) in Czechoslovakia a nomogram, for predicting fat content from skinfold thicknesses. Steinkamp, Cohen, Gaffey, McKay, Bron, Siri, Sargent & Isaacs (196 j) gave predictive equations based on measurements of body circumferences and skinfold thicknesses on 167 subjects in California. The only comparable attempt on a British population, to our knowledge, is a study on twenty-four hospital patients, measurements being made of total body water and skinfold thickness (Fletcher, 1962). Information about a wide range of body types in population groups in Britain is required. The present paper describes a study on 105 young adults and 86 adolescents. By means of results from measurements by anthropometry including skinfold thicknesses and body density, an attempt has been made to formulate simple equations for the prediction of the quantity of fat in the body. The subjects were of varying body build-thin, intermediate, plump, but very few were obese.
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TL;DR: Skinfold thicknesses at four sites – biceps, triceps, subscapular and supra-iliac – and total body density were measured on 209 males and 272 females aged from 16 to 72 years, finding it necessary to use the logarithm of skinfold measurements in order to achieve a linear relationship with body density.
Abstract: The fat content of the human body has physiological and medical importance. It may influence morbidity and mortality, it may aIter the effectiveness of drugs and anaesthetics, and it may affect the ability to withstand exposure to cold and starvation. Thus the measurement of the total body fat provides useful information. In many people, but by no means everyone, a moderately satisfactory estimate of the body fat content can be obtained from the height and weight. However, for more precise evaluation several methods are available which give a reasonably accurate measure of body fat both in normal subjects and in individuals with unusual body builds. Most of these methods are based on the assumption that the body can be considered to consist of two compartments of relatively constant composition but which are distinctly different; these compartments are: (I) the body fat, which includes the entire content of chemical fat or lipids in the body, and (2) the fat-free mass (FFM), which includes all the rest of the body apart from fat. The body fat compartment is anhydrous, contains no potassium and has a fairly constant density of about 0.90 x 103 kg/m3. The fat-free compartment on the other hand probably has a fairly constant density of about 1.10 x 103 kg/m3, a potassium content of about 68 mequiv./kg in males (about 10% less in females) and a water content of about 720 g/kg. Thus measurement of body density or of total body K or of total body water allows a calculation of the relative proportion of these two compartments in the body and therefore also of the total fat content. The accuracy of these measures, however, is limited by the variability of the composition and density of the fat-free compartment in different individuals. In particular, individuals with a relatively high or
6,287 citations
Cites methods from "The assessment of the amount of fat..."
...The body density of each individual was found using the technique of Durnin & Rahaman (1967) and the volume of air in the lungs at the moment of underwater weighing was measured by the three-breath nitrogen dilution method (Rahn, Fenn & Otis, 1949)....
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...A previous paper from this laboratory (Durnin & Rahaman, 1967) suggested that the relationship between body density and skinfolds was sufficiently uniform that regression equations and tables could be constructed to calculate body fat on this basis in adolescents and young adults....
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TL;DR: The regression equations were shown to be valid for adult men varying in age and fatness, in combination with age, waist and forearm circumference.
Abstract: 1. Skinfold thickness, body circumferences and body density were measured in samples of 308 and ninety-five adult men ranging in age from 18 to 61 years. 2. Using the sample of 308 men, multiple regression equations were calculated to estimate body density using either the quadratic or log form of the sum of skinfolds, in combination with age, waist and forearm circumference. 3. The multiple correlations for the equations exceeded 0.90 with standard errors of approximately +/- 0.0073 g/ml. 4. The regression equations were cross validated on the second sample of ninety-five men. The correlations between predicted and laboratory-determined body density exceeded 0.90 with standard errors of approximately 0.0077 g/ml. 5. The regression equations were shown to be valid for adult men varying in age and fatness.
3,083 citations
TL;DR: It was concluded that improvement in strength may be accounted for by neural factors during the course of very intensive strength training, especially in highly trained subjects.
Abstract: Eleven male subjects (20-32 years) accustomed to strength training went through progressive, high-load strength training for 24 weeks with intensities ranging variably between 70 and 120% during each month. This training was also followed by a 12-week detraining period. An increase of 26.8% (P less than 0.001) in maximal isometric strength took place during the training. The increase in strength correlated (P less than 0.05) with significant (P less than 0.05-0.01) increases in the neural activation (IEMG) of the leg extensor muscles during the most intensive training months. During the lower-intensity training, maximum IEMG decreased (P less than 0.05). Enlargements of muscle-fibre areas, especially of fast-twitch type (P less than 0.001), took place during the first 12 weeks of training. No hypertrophic changes were noted during the latter half of training. After initial improvements (P less than 0.05) no changes or even slight worsening were noted in selected force-time parameters during later strength training. During detraining a great (P less than 0.01) decrease in maximal strength was correlated (P less than 0.05) with the decrease (P less than 0.05) in the maximum IEMGs of the leg extensors. This period resulted also in decreases (P less than 0.05) of the mean muscle-fibre areas of both fibre types. It was concluded that improvement in strength may be accounted for by neural factors during the course of very intensive strength training. Selective training-induced hypertrophy also contributed to strength development but muscle hypertrophy may have some limitations during long-lasting strength training, especially in highly trained subjects.
758 citations
TL;DR: It is demonstrated that bicarbonate supplementation slows the rate of progression of renal failure to ESRD and improves nutritional status among patients with CKD and Nutritional parameters improved significantly with bic carbonate supplementation, which was well tolerated.
Abstract: Bicarbonate supplementation preserves renal function in experimental chronic kidney disease (CKD), but whether the same benefit occurs in humans is unknown. Here, we randomly assigned 134 adult patients with CKD (creatinine clearance [CrCl] 15 to 30 ml/min per 1.73 m2) and serum bicarbonate 16 to 20 mmol/L to either supplementation with oral sodium bicarbonate or standard care for 2 yr. The primary end points were rate of CrCl decline, the proportion of patients with rapid decline of CrCl (>3 ml/min per 1.73 m2/yr), and ESRD (CrCl <10 ml/min). Secondary end points were dietary protein intake, normalized protein nitrogen appearance, serum albumin, and mid-arm muscle circumference. Compared with the control group, decline in CrCl was slower with bicarbonate supplementation (5.93 versus 1.88 ml/min 1.73 m2; P < 0.0001). Patients supplemented with bicarbonate were significantly less likely to experience rapid progression (9 versus 45%; relative risk 0.15; 95% confidence interval 0.06 to 0.40; P < 0.0001). Similarly, fewer patients supplemented with bicarbonate developed ESRD (6.5 versus 33%; relative risk 0.13; 95% confidence interval 0.04 to 0.40; P < 0.001). Nutritional parameters improved significantly with bicarbonate supplementation, which was well tolerated. This study demonstrates that bicarbonate supplementation slows the rate of progression of renal failure to ESRD and improves nutritional status among patients with CKD.
735 citations
TL;DR: The variation between subjects is such that strength is not a useful predictive index of muscle cross‐sectional area, and a wide variation in the ratio of strength to muscle cross-sectional area was observed.
Abstract: The maximum voluntary force (strength) which could be produced by the knee-extensor muscles, with the knee held at a right angle, was measured in a group of healthy young subjects comprising twenty-five males and twenty-five females. Both legs were tested: data from the stronger leg only for each subject were used in the present study. Computed tomography was used to obtain a cross-sectional image of the subjects' legs at mid-thigh level, measured as the mid-point between the greater trochanter and upper border of the patella. The cross-sectional area of the knee-extensor muscles was determined from the image obtained by computer-based planimetry. The subjects' height and weight were measured. An estimate of body fat content was obtained from measurements of skinfold thicknesses and used to calculate lean body mass. Male subjects were taller (P less than 0.001), heavier (P less than 0.001), leaner (P less than 0.001) and stronger (P less than 0.001) than the female subjects. No significant correlation was found to exist between strength of the knee-extensor muscles and body weight in the male or in the female subjects. In the male subjects, but not in the female group, there was a positive correlation (r = 0.50; P less than 0.01) between strength and lean body mass. Muscle cross-sectional area of the male subjects was greater than that of the female subjects (P less than 0.001). The ratio of strength to cross-sectional area for the male was 9.49 +/- 1.34 (mean +/- S.D.). This is greater but not significantly so, than that for females (8.92 +/- 1.11). In both male and female groups, there was a significant (P less than 0.01) positive correlation between muscle strength and cross-sectional area. A wide variation in the ratio of strength to muscle cross-sectional area was observed. This variability may be a result of anatomical differences between subjects or may result from differences in the proportions of different fibre types in the muscles. The variation between subjects is such that strength is not a useful predictive index of muscle cross-sectional area.
710 citations
References
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Book•
03 Oct 1978
TL;DR: This book is the expansion of a prize essay on the subject of obesity in childhood, with special reference to Hilde Bruch's theory on the causation of this condition, and is a useful summary of the statistical facts regarding obesity.
Abstract: Obese Children. By FLEMMING QUAADE. (Pp. 302. No price given.) Printed by Danish Science Press Ltd., Copenhagen. 1955. This book is the expansion of a prize essay on the subject of obesity in childhood, with special reference to Hilde Bruch's theory on the causation of this condition. Bruch supposed that an ambivalance exists in the attitudes of mothers to their obese children; that they have fundamentally hostile feelings compensated for by more obvious, but more superficial, over-protection and demonstrations of love, manifested by gifts of food. The book make a careful study of 185 obese children, analysing a variety of data and comparing them with similar data from over 1,000 non-obese children. Dr. Quaade eventually comes to two principal conclusions. First, that almost nothing distinguishes obese children from their slimmer friends other than their fatness, together with a characteristic emotional outlook which is not causative but a result of the impact their obesity makes upon their school friends. He concludes that there is little support of Dr. Bruch's thesis regarding the relationship of parents to their obese children. Secondly, he concludes that the main reason why children become fat is because of their excessive appetites, though he bases his opinions on impressions only. Dr. Quaade has nothing to offer regarding why some children's appetites lead them to eat more food and lay down more fat than others, and this surely is the crux of the problem which Dr. Bruch made an attempt to solve. The book is well printed, and though paper backed, is adequately bound. It abounds in tables and charts, and is a useful summary, without making additions to our knowledge, of the statistical facts regarding obesity.
4,170 citations
TL;DR: It is shown that in a system consisting of two additive components which are mixed but the densities of which are known, the determination of the density of the system allows one to calculate the proportional masses of the two components.
Abstract: One can trace to Archimedes the idea that in a system consisting of two additive components which are mixed but the densities of which are known ( d l , d 2 ) , the determination of the density of the system ( D ) allows one to calculate the proportional masses of the two components. Let’s denote these components as W1 and W2.S Then, in a system with total weight W = W1 + Wz, the general equation for calculating component W1 expressed as a fraction (w1) of the total body weight is:
2,221 citations
548 citations
TL;DR: The data support the concept that the comparatively low specific gravity of fat makes the measurement of the specificgravity of the body mass valid for the estimation of fat content.
Abstract: The fundamental biologic determination of corporeal specific gravity, essentially a relationship between weight and unit volume, has been neglected in the modern classification of healthy persons. Stern 1 and Spivak 2 emphasized the value of the measurement of corporeal density, but their experimental data are not conclusive. Of especial interest is the relationship between specific gravity and the fat content of the body. The presence of an indeterminate amount of excess adipose tissue renders difficult any precise computation, for example, of metabolic rate or dosage of drugs in terms of total body weight. The important consideration should be the weight of the lean body representing the active mass of protoplasm. In this paper the data support the concept that the comparatively low specific gravity of fat makes the measurement of the specific gravity of the body mass valid for the estimation of fat content. The comprehensive, statistical analysis of Boyd,
417 citations
TL;DR: The purpose of the present investigation was to test various designs of caliper and to recommend principles that all calipers should follow, and to introduce, and test the accuracy of, a new skinfold caliper which the authors believe to be the most satisfactory yet produced.
Abstract: A considerable proportion of the body fat lies in the subcutaneous tissue which, in many parts of the body, is only loosely attached to the underlying tissue and can be pulled up between the thumb and forefinger into a fold (Pl. I). The thickness of this fold of skin and subcutaneous tissues can be measured by applying some form of caliper to either side of it, and this technique has been widely used to give an estimate of body fat by those concerned with nutrition (Sinclair, 1948; Keys & Broiek, 1953), with fat distribution (Edwards, 1950), with child growth (Franzen, 1929; Reynolds, 1950; Tanner, 1953) and with anthropometric surveys (Berry, Cowin & Magee, 1951 ; Hammond, 1953). However, the observed thickness depends on how the skinfold is picked up and on the design of the caliper with which it is measured; if, for example, the jaws of the caliper are approximated by a spring the reading will depend on the strength of the spring, since the tissue is compressible. Despite these facts, there has been little information published on the best design of skinfold calipers, and no general standardization either of instrument or of technique. Hence the comparison of the results of different observers is usually impossible, and much work in the field is vitiated. The purpose of the present investigation was (a) to test various designs of caliper and to recommend principles that all calipers should follow, and (b) to introduce, and test the accuracy of, a new skinfold caliper which we believe to be the most satisfactory yet produced. The paper is divided into two parts : Part I describes two experiments on caliper design and ends with a set of general recommendations; Part z describes the new caliper and gives the results of three experiments made to assess its accuracy in practical use. * This investigation was carried out at the request of the Medical Research Council's Committee
396 citations