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The Behavior of Organisms
01 Jan 1938-
About: The article was published on 1938-01-01 and is currently open access. It has received 3337 citations till now.
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01 Jan 1988TL;DR: This book provides a clear and simple account of the key ideas and algorithms of reinforcement learning, which ranges from the history of the field's intellectual foundations to the most recent developments and applications.
Abstract: Reinforcement learning, one of the most active research areas in artificial intelligence, is a computational approach to learning whereby an agent tries to maximize the total amount of reward it receives when interacting with a complex, uncertain environment. In Reinforcement Learning, Richard Sutton and Andrew Barto provide a clear and simple account of the key ideas and algorithms of reinforcement learning. Their discussion ranges from the history of the field's intellectual foundations to the most recent developments and applications. The only necessary mathematical background is familiarity with elementary concepts of probability. The book is divided into three parts. Part I defines the reinforcement learning problem in terms of Markov decision processes. Part II provides basic solution methods: dynamic programming, Monte Carlo methods, and temporal-difference learning. Part III presents a unified view of the solution methods and incorporates artificial neural networks, eligibility traces, and planning; the two final chapters present case studies and consider the future of reinforcement learning.
37,989 citations
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01 Jan 1958TL;DR: The psychology of interpersonal relations as mentioned in this paper, The psychology in interpersonal relations, The Psychology of interpersonal relationships, کتابخانه دیجیتال و فن اطلاعات دانشگاه امام صادق(ع)
Abstract: The psychology of interpersonal relations , The psychology of interpersonal relations , کتابخانه دیجیتال و فن آوری اطلاعات دانشگاه امام صادق(ع)
15,254 citations
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01 Jan 1988
TL;DR: This article posits a revised explanatory model which incorporates self-efficacy into the Health Belief Model, and predicts that the new formulation will more fully account for health-related behavior than did earlier formulations, and will suggest more effective behavioral interventions than have hitherto been available to health educators.
Abstract: The Health Belief Model, social learning theory (recently relabelled social cognitive theory), self-efficacy, and locus of control have all been applied with varying success to problems of explaining, predicting, and influencing behavior. Yet, there is conceptual confusion among researchers and practitioners about the interrelationships of these theories and variables. This article attempts to show how these explanatory factors may be related, and in so doing, posits a revised explanatory model which incorporates self-efficacy into the Health Belief Model. Specifically, self-efficacy is proposed as a separate independent variable along with the traditional health belief variables of perceived susceptibility, severity, benefits, and barriers. Incentive to behave (health motivation) is also a component of the model. Locus of control is not included explicitly because it is believed to be incorporated within other elements of the model. It is predicted that the new formulation will more fully account for health-related behavior than did earlier formulations, and will suggest more effective behavioral interventions than have hitherto been available to health educators.
4,772 citations
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TL;DR: In this paper, the authors review evidence that the ability to exercise such conscious, intentional control is actually quite limited, so that most of moment-to-moment psychological life must occur through nonconscious means if it is to occur at all.
Abstract: What was noted by E. J. hanger (1978) remains true today: that much of contemporary psychological research is based on the assumption that people are consciously and systematically processing incoming information in order to construe and interpret their world and to plan and engage in courses of action. As did E. J. hanger, the authors question this assumption. First, they review evidence that the ability to exercise such conscious, intentional control is actually quite limited, so that most of moment-to-mom ent psychological life must occur through nonconscious means if it is to occur at all. The authors then describe the different possible mechanisms that produce automatic, environmental control over these various phenomena and review evidence establishing both the existence of these mechanisms as well as their consequences for judgments, emotions, and behavior. Three major forms of automatic self-regulation are identified: an automatic effect of perception on action, automatic goal pursuit, and a continual automatic evaluation of one's experience. From the accumulating evidence, the authors conclude that these various nonconscious mental systems perform the lion's share of the self-regulatory burden, beneficently keeping the individual grounded in his or her current environment. The strongest knowledge—that of the total unfreedom of the human will—is nonetheless the poorest in successes, for it always has the strongest opponent: human vanity. —Nietzsche, Human, All Too Human
3,436 citations
References
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01 Jan 1959
TL;DR: Koehler's analysis of the intelligence of higher primates marked a turning point in the psychology of thinking and the continuing struggle between behaviorism and cognitive psychology as discussed by the authors, but it was largely ignored for decades because it violated the conventional wisdom that animal behavior is simply the result of instinct or conditioning.
Abstract: Wolfgang Koehler demonstrated that chimpanzees could solve problems by applying insight His research showed that the intellectual gap between humans and chimpanzees was much narrower than previously thought The work was revolutionary when originally published in 1917 in German, but it was largely ignored for decades because it violated the conventional wisdom that animal behavior is simply the result of instinct or conditioning
However, Koehler's research showed this was not the case He used four chimps in his experiments, Chica, Grande, Konsul, and Sultan The experiments consisted of placing chimpanzees in an enclosed area and presenting them with a desired object that was out of reach In one experiment, Koehler placed bananas outside Sultan's cage and two bamboo sticks inside his cage which needed to be put together to reach the bananas Koehler demonstrated the solution to Sultan by putting his fingers into the end of one of the sticks After some contemplation, Sultan put the two sticks together and was able to reach the bananas
As Jaan Valsiner shows in his introduction to this classic work, Koehler's analysis of the intelligence of apes marked a turning point in the psychology of thinking and the continuing struggle between behaviorism and cognitive psychology Koehler achieved his two-fold aim: to determine the relationship between the intellectual capacity of higher primates and man, and to gain insight into the nature of intelligent acts
1,812 citations
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01 Jan 1919TL;DR: Wozniak as mentioned in this paper describes the early elaboration of the theory of reflex, habit, and implicit response in the early stages of the development of the early development of behaviourism.
Abstract: Reflex, Habit & Implicit Response: The Early Elaboration of Theoretical and Methodological Behaviourism Robert H Wozniak (Ed) Original publication 1915-1928 420pp Psychology from the Standpoint of a Behaviourist [1919] John Broadus Watson 429pp Social Psychology [1924] Floyd Henry Allport 453pp An Introduction to Objective Psychopathology [1925] Gilbert Van Tassel Hamilton 354pp A Theoretical Basis of Human Behaviour [1925] Albert Paul Weiss 429pp Fundamentals of Objective Psychology [1928] John Frederick Dashiell 588pp
810 citations
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103 citations