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Journal ArticleDOI

The biosynthesis of astaxanthin

TL;DR: A new keto carotenoid was isolated from goldfish ( Carssius auratus ) which was shown to be a 3-hydtoxy-3',4'-diketo-α-carotene.
About: This article is published in International Journal of Biochemistry.The article was published on 1970-08-01. It has received 92 citations till now. The article focuses on the topics: Astaxanthin & Carotenoid.
Citations
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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The current available evidence regarding astaxanthin chemistry and its potential beneficial effects in humans is reviewed and an unusual antioxidant activity which has caused a surge in the nutraceutical market for the encapsulated product is reviewed.
Abstract: Astaxanthin is a carotenoid widely used in salmonid and crustacean aquaculture to provide the pink color characteristic of that species. This application has been well documented for over two decades and is currently the major market driver for the pigment. Additionally, astaxanthin also plays a key role as an intermediary in reproductive processes. Synthetic astaxanthin dominates the world market but recent interest in natural sources of the pigment has increased substantially. Common sources of natural astaxanthin are the green algae Haematococcus pluvialis, the red yeast, Phaffia rhodozyma, as well as crustacean byproducts. Astaxanthin possesses an unusual antioxidant activity which has caused a surge in the nutraceutical market for the encapsulated product. Also, health benefits such as cardiovascular disease prevention, immune system boosting, bioactivity against Helycobacter pylori, and cataract prevention, have been associated with astaxanthin consumption. Research on the health benefits of astaxanthin is very recent and has mostly been performed in vitro or at the pre-clinical level with humans. This paper reviews the current available evidence regarding astaxanthin chemistry and its potential beneficial effects in humans.

953 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The results suggest that astaxanthin synthesis proceeds via cantaxanth in Haematococcus and that this exceptional stress response is mediated by reactive oxygen species (ROS) through a mechanism which is not yet understood.
Abstract: The unicellular green alga Haematococcus pluvialis Flotow has recently aroused considerable interest due to its capacity to amass large amounts of the ketocarotenoid astaxanthin (3,3′-dihydroxy-β,β-carotene-4,4′-dione), widely used commercially to color flesh of salmon. Astaxanthin accumulation in Haematococcus is induced by a variety of environmental stresses which limit cell growth in the presence of light. This is accompanied by a remarkable morphological and biochemical ‘transformation’ from green motile cells into inert red cysts. In recent years we have studied this transformation process from several aspects: defining conditions governing pigment accumulation, working out the biosynthetic pathway of astaxanthin accumulation and questioning the possible function of this secondary ketocarotenoid in protecting Haematococcus cells against oxidative damage. Our results suggest that astaxanthin synthesis proceeds via cantaxanthin and that this exceptional stress response is mediated by reactive oxygen species (ROS) through a mechanism which is not yet understood. The results do not support in vivo chemical quenching of ROS by the pigment, although in vitro it was shown to quench radicals very efficiently. The finding that most of the pigment produced is esterified and deposited in lipid globules outside the chloroplast further supports this assumption. We have suggested that astaxanthin is the by-product of a defense mechanism rather than the defending substance itself, although at this stage one cannot rule out other protective mechanisms. Further work is required for complete understanding of this transformation process. It is suggested that Haematococcus may serve as a simple model system to study response to oxidative stress and mechanisms evolved to cope with this harmful situation.

532 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The red-pigmented fermenting yeast Phaffia rhodozyma contains astaxanthin as the principal carotenoid pigment as mentioned in this paper, and a possible biosynthetic scheme for the formation of the pigment is suggested.

271 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Metabolism, Storage, and Metabolism-GeneraI . . . ......... .
Abstract: INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 METABOLISM IN FISH . . . . ..... .. .... . . . . . .... . ......... . . . . 276 Nature of Pigments ... . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 276 Astaxanthin Formation . . ... .... . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 Xanthophyll Formation in Marine Fish . . . . . . . . ...... . . . .... . . . . . .. . . . . ... . . 280 Reductive Metabolism of Xanthophylls in Fish........ . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . 280 Carotenoids as Vitamin A Precursors . . ......... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... . ... . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . 28 1 Regulation of Vitamin A Synthesis . . ... . . . . . . . . ......... . . . . . . . . 283 Coloration in Artificially Reared Fish..... . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 METABOLISM IN BIRDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 Absorption, Storage, and Metabolism-GeneraI . . . ......... . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . 284 Meta.b?lism in Retina and Embryo . . . . . .. . . . . . . ........ . . . . . . . . ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 Nutrition . . . . . . . . . . . .... .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... . . . 286 METABOLISM IN INSECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 Formation of Hydrocarbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 287 DE NOVO SYNTHESIS IN ANIMALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ... . . . 287 FUNCTIONS OTHER THAN AS VITAMIN A PRECURSORS . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 288 Invertebrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 Vertebrates. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 288 Protection Against Photosensitization . .. . . . . . . . . . ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 Mechanism of Photoprotection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 CAROTENOIDS AS ANTITUMOR AGENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292

255 citations

Book ChapterDOI
01 Jan 1981

122 citations

References
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Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Body and chromatophore pigments were isolated from the three colour varieties of the marine isopod, Idothea montereyensis, and a possible pathway has been suggested for the production of canthaxanthin from β-carotene.

81 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
Kurt Egger1
TL;DR: Nach der Verseifung werden diese Farbstoffe als Dehydroverbindungen erhalten, Dehydroadonixanthin-3,4-Diketo-3′-hydroxy-β-carotin and Euglenanon—3, 4-Dicydroxy- β- carotin, das ebenfalls in Euglena vorkommt.

46 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The pigments in the shell of the asteroid Asterina panceri have been demonstrated and their distribution determined quantitatively and the possible biosynthetic route from β-carotene to astaxanthin, still proposed for Ophidiaster ophidianus, is discussed.

24 citations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Zusammenfassung Die Strukturformeln, die fur zwei aus Adonis isolierte und in Acetabularia wieder gefundene Pigmente aufgestellt wurden, konnten durch Vergleich mit synthetischen Substanzen bestatigt werden.

18 citations