The bud rot pathogens infecting cannabis (Cannabis sativa L., marijuana) inflorescences: symptomology, species identification, pathogenicity and biological control
01 Jun 2021-Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology-revue Canadienne De Phytopathologie (Taylor & Francis)-Vol. 43, Iss: 6, pp 827-854
TL;DR: Pathogenicity studies conducted on fresh detached cannabis buds inoculated with spore suspensions or mycelial plugs showed that B. cinerea, S. sclerotiorum and F. graminearum were the most virulent, while B. porri and D. eres caused significantly less bud rot.
Abstract: Bud rot pathogens cause diseases on Cannabis sativa L. (cannabis, hemp) worldwide through pre- and post-harvest infections of the inflorescence. Seven indoor or outdoor cannabis production sites an...
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TL;DR: The robust strategies for disease management are in development for this new crop and have primarily relied on management systems for other crops, but knowledge for control of these important fungal diseases to provide safe products for human consumption is required.
Abstract: The potential of species of Fusarium to cause significant economic losses in Cannabis sativa due to plant diseases and mycotoxin residues is the subject of this review. Sixteen species of Fusarium, reported as associated with cannabis production, are classified in six species complexes: Fusarium oxysporum, F. solani, F. incarnatum-equiseti, F. sambucinum, F. tricinctum, and F. fujikuroi. Taxonomy in this genus is the subject of debate, and removal of species in the F. solani Species Complex to the genus, Neocosmospora, has been proposed. Many species associated with C. sativa are also opportunistic pathogens of humans and animals. Species of Fusarium produce a myriad of mycotoxins, including at least three (deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, and fumonisin B) deemed the most important mycotoxins in human and animal foods. These chemicals vary from the very simple chemicals (moniliformin and butanolide) to the structurally complex depsipeptides (beauvericin and enniatin B) and trichothecenes (deoxynivalenol and its acetylated derivatives, diacetoxyscirpenol, and T-2-toxin). The robust strategies for disease management (e.g., exclusion of the pathogen, control of environment, and host resistance) are in development for this new crop and have primarily relied on management systems for other crops. Biopesticides have been labeled for use on C. sativa; however, few efficacy trials have been performed. Host resistance to these pathogens and transmission are also understudied. The new markets for C. sativa and its derivative products require knowledge for control of these important fungal diseases to provide safe products for human consumption.
12 citations
TL;DR: This work aims at supporting the development of the cannabis industry in a sustainable way, by exploiting the many beneficial attributes of Pseudomonas spp.
Abstract: Among the oldest domesticated crops, cannabis plants (Cannabis sativa L., marijuana and hemp) have been used to produce food, fiber, and drugs for thousands of years. With the ongoing legalization of cannabis in several jurisdictions worldwide, a new high-value market is emerging for the supply of marijuana and hemp products. This creates unprecedented challenges to achieve better yields and environmental sustainability, while lowering production costs. In this review, we discuss the opportunities and challenges pertaining to the use of beneficial Pseudomonas spp. bacteria as crop inoculants to improve productivity. The prevalence and diversity of naturally occurring Pseudomonas strains within the cannabis microbiome is overviewed, followed by their potential mechanisms involved in plant growth promotion and tolerance to abiotic and biotic stresses. Emphasis is placed on specific aspects relevant for hemp and marijuana crops in various production systems. Finally, factors likely to influence inoculant efficacy are provided, along with strategies to identify promising strains, overcome commercialization bottlenecks, and design adapted formulations. This work aims at supporting the development of the cannabis industry in a sustainable way, by exploiting the many beneficial attributes of Pseudomonas spp.
10 citations
TL;DR: Diaporthe sp.
Abstract: Michigan’s hop acreage ranks fourth nationally, but the state’s growers contend with unique disease challenges resulting from frequent rainfall and high humidity. In August 2018, a Michigan hop gro...
4 citations
TL;DR: Altered biosynthesis pathways for production of PLT and DAPG are required for the optimal antagonistic activity of P. protegens Pf-5 against B. cinerea in the cannabis phyllosphere to indicate the importance of antibiotics pyoluteorin and 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol in biocontrol.
Abstract: Pseudomonas protegens Pf-5 is an effective biocontrol agent that protects many crops against pathogens, including the fungal pathogen Botrytis cinerea causing gray mold disease in Cannabis sativa crops. Previous studies have demonstrated the important role of antibiotics pyoluteorin (PLT) and 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol (DAPG) in Pf-5-mediated biocontrol. To assess the potential involvement of PLT and DAPG in the biocontrol exerted by Pf-5 against B. cinerea in the phyllosphere of C. sativa, two knockout Pf-5 mutants were generated by in-frame deletion of genes pltD or phlA, required for the synthesis of PLT or DAPG respectively, using a two-step allelic exchange method. Additionally, two complemented mutants were constructed by introducing a multicopy plasmid carrying the deleted gene into each deletion mutant. In vitro confrontation assays revealed that deletion mutant ∆pltD inhibited B. cinerea growth significantly less than wild-type Pf-5, supporting antifungal activity of PLT. However, deletion mutant ∆phlA inhibited mycelial growth significantly more than the wild-type, hypothetically due to a co-regulation of PLT and DAPG biosynthesis pathways. Both complemented mutants recovered in vitro inhibition levels similar to that of the wild-type. In subsequent growth chamber inoculation trials, characterization of gray mold disease symptoms on infected cannabis plants revealed that both ∆pltD and ∆phlA significantly lost a part of their biocontrol capabilities, achieving only 10 and 19% disease reduction respectively, compared to 40% achieved by inoculation with the wild-type. Finally, both complemented mutants recovered biocontrol capabilities in planta similar to that of the wild-type. These results indicate that intact biosynthesis pathways for production of PLT and DAPG are required for the optimal antagonistic activity of P. protegens Pf-5 against B. cinerea in the cannabis phyllosphere.
3 citations
TL;DR: In this article, stem canker symptoms were sampled from indoor and outdoor production sites in British Columbia (BC) and Ontario (Ontario) and affected tissues were sampled and affected tissue were su...
Abstract: Cannabis (Cannabis sativa L., marijuana) plants grown at indoor and outdoor production sites in British Columbia (BC) and Ontario with stem canker symptoms were sampled and affected tissues were su...
1 citations
Cites background from "The bud rot pathogens infecting can..."
...Post-harvest moulds such as Penicillium spp. and Botrytis cinerea also cause considerable damage (Punja 2021b; Punja and Ni 2021)....
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...…important pathogens reported in recent years on cannabis plants include those infecting the inflorescences (Punja and Rodriguez 2018; Punja 2021a; Punja and Ni 2021), the foliage (Punja 2018; Scott and Punja 2021), and the roots (Punja and Rodriguez 2018; Punja et al. 2019; Punja 2021c; Punja…...
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...and Botrytis cinerea also cause considerable damage (Punja 2021b; Punja and Ni 2021)....
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...In Canada, important pathogens reported in recent years on cannabis plants include those infecting the inflorescences (Punja and Rodriguez 2018; Punja 2021a; Punja and Ni 2021), the foliage (Punja 2018; Scott and Punja 2021), and the roots (Punja and Rodriguez 2018; Punja et al....
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References
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TL;DR: The genus Trichoderma comprises a great number of fungal strains that act as biological control agents, the antagonistic properties of which are based on the activation of multiple mechanisms, such as plant growth factors, hydrolytic enzymes, siderophores, antibiotics, and carbon and nitrogen permeases.
Abstract: The genus Trichoderma comprises a great number of fungal strains that act as biological control agents, the antagonistic properties of which are based on the activation of multiple mechanisms. Trichoderma strains exert biocontrol against fungal phytopathogens either indirectly, by competing for nutrients and space, modifying the environmental conditions, or promoting plant growth and plant defensive mechanisms and antibiosis, or directly, by mechanisms such as mycoparasitism. These indirect and direct mechanisms may act coordinately and their importance in the biocontrol process depends on the Trichoderma strain, the antagonized fungus, the crop plant, and the environmental conditions, including nutrient availability, pH, temperature, and iron concentration. Activation of each mechanism implies the production of specific compounds and metabolites, such as plant growth factors, hydrolytic enzymes, siderophores, antibiotics, and carbon and nitrogen permeases. These metabolites can be either overproduced or combined with appropriate biocontrol strains in order to obtain new formulations for use in more efficient control of plant diseases and postharvest applications.
1,338 citations
"The bud rot pathogens infecting can..." refers background in this paper
...…of action described for Trichoderma, Gliocladium and Bacillus against B. cinerea and other pathogens (Sutton et al. 1997; McPartland et al. 2000; Benítez et al. 2004; Haidar et al. 2016; Nicot et al. 2016; Samaras et al. 2020; Sood et al. 2020; Sun et al. 2021) are likely taking place against…...
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...cinerea and other pathogens (Sutton et al. 1997; McPartland et al. 2000; Benítez et al. 2004; Haidar et al. 2016; Nicot et al. 2016; Samaras et al. 2020; Sood et al. 2020; Sun et al. 2021) are likely taking place against Botrytis bud rot but further studies are needed....
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TL;DR: New evidence suggests that the pathogen triggers the host to induce programmed cell death as an attack strategy, which could offer new approaches for stable polygenic resistance in future.
Abstract: Introduction: Botrytis cinerea (teleomorph: Botryotinia fuckeliana) is an airborne plant pathogen with a necrotrophic lifestyle attacking over 200 crop hosts worldwide. Although there are fungicides for its control, many classes of fungicides have failed due to its genetic plasticity. It has become an important model for molecular study of necrotrophic fungi. Taxonomy: Kingdom: Fungi, phylum: Ascomycota, subphylum: Pezizomycotina, class: Leotiomycetes, order: Helotiales, family: Sclerotiniaceae, genus: Botryotinia. Host range and symptoms: Over 200 mainly dicotyledonous plant species, including important protein, oil, fibre and horticultural crops, are affected in temperate and subtropical regions. It can cause soft rotting of all aerial plant parts, and rotting of vegetables, fruits and flowers post-harvest to produce prolific grey conidiophores and (macro)conidia typical of the disease. Pathogenicity: B. cinerea produces a range of cell-wall-degrading enzymes, toxins and other low-molecular-weight compounds such as oxalic acid. New evidence suggests that the pathogen triggers the host to induce programmed cell death as an attack strategy. Resistance: There are few examples of robust genetic host resistance, but recent work has identified quantitative trait loci in tomato that offer new approaches for stable polygenic resistance in future.
1,199 citations
"The bud rot pathogens infecting can..." refers background in this paper
...The events occurring during host–pathogen interactions have been described elsewhere (Choquer et al. 2007; Williamson et al. 2007; Veloso and van Kan 2018; Richards et al. 2021)....
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TL;DR: Prospects on the benefits linked to the use of the -omics technologies, such as metabolomics and transcriptomics to speed up the identification and the large-scale production of lead agents from bioengineered Cannabis cell culture, are presented.
Abstract: Cannabis sativa L. is an important herbaceous species originating from Central Asia, which has been used in folk medicine and as a source of textile fiber since the dawn of times. This fast-growing plant has recently seen a resurgence of interest because of its multi-purpose applications: it is indeed a treasure trove of phytochemicals and a rich source of both cellulosic and woody fibers. Equally highly interested in this plant are the pharmaceutical and construction sectors, since its metabolites show potent bioactivities on human health and its outer and inner stem tissues can be used to make bioplastics and concrete-like material, respectively. In this review, the rich spectrum of hemp phytochemicals is discussed by putting a special emphasis on molecules of industrial interest, including cannabinoids, terpenes and phenolic compounds, and their biosynthetic routes. Cannabinoids represent the most studied group of compounds, mainly due to their wide range of pharmaceutical effects in humans, including psychotropic activities. The therapeutic and commercial interests of some terpenes and phenolic compounds, and in particular stilbenoids and lignans, are also highlighted in view of the most recent literature data. Biotechnological avenues to enhance the production and bioactivity of hemp secondary metabolites are proposed by discussing the power of plant genetic engineering and tissue culture. In particular two systems are reviewed, i.e., cell suspension and hairy root cultures. Additionally, an entire section is devoted to hemp trichomes, in the light of their importance as phytochemical factories. Ultimately, prospects on the benefits linked to the use of the -omics technologies, such as metabolomics and transcriptomics to speed up the identification and the large-scale production of lead agents from bioengineered Cannabis cell culture, are presented.
896 citations
"The bud rot pathogens infecting can..." refers background in this paper
...These trichomes are produced in large numbers on bracts of cannabis inflorescences (Andre et al. 2016; Small 2017), leading researchers to suggest that they may function in antipredation, protection against UV irradiation, localization of toxic compounds and attraction of pollinators (Hauser 2014;…...
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...Cannabis sativa L., a member of the family Cannabaceae, contains two important crop species that are cultivated worldwide: cannabis (marijuana) for its medicinal and psychotropic properties, and hemp as a source of fibre and oilseed (Andre et al. 2016)....
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...Cannabis trichomes synthesize monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes, such as β-myrcene, limonene, α-pinene, β-caryophyllene, and α-humulene (Andre et al. 2016; Booth et al. 2017)....
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...As these trichomes mature, they secrete a resinous material made up of cannabinoids, terpenes and phenolic compounds, especially flavonoids (Andre et al. 2016)....
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TL;DR: Characteristics of higher plant terpenoids that result in mediation of numerous kinds of ecological interactions are discussed as a framework for this Symposium on Chemical Ecology of Terpenoids, and the role of terpenoid mixtures is emphasized.
Abstract: Characteristics of higher plant terpenoids that result in mediation of numerous kinds of ecological interactions are discussed as a framework for this Symposium on Chemical Ecology of Terpenoids. However, the role of terpenoid mixtures, either constitutive or induced, their intraspecific qualitative and quantitative compositional variation, and their dosage-dependent effects are emphasized in subsequent discussions. It is suggested that little previous attention to these characteristics may have contributed to terpenoids having been misrepresented in some chemical defense theories. Selected phytocentric examples of terpenoid interactions are presented: (1) defense against generalist and specialist insect and mammalian herbivores, (2) defense against insect-vectored fungi and potentially pathogenic endophytic fungi, (3) attraction of entomophages and pollinators, (4) allelopathic effects that inhibit seed germination and soil bacteria, and (5) interaction with reactive troposphere gases. The results are integrated by discussing how these terpenoids may be contributing factors in determining some properties of terrestrial plant communities and ecosystems. A terrestrial phytocentric approach is necessitated due to the magnitude and scope of terpenoid interactions. This presentation has a more broadly based ecological perspective than the several excellent recent reviews of the ecological chemistry of terpenoids.
811 citations
"The bud rot pathogens infecting can..." refers background in this paper
...Higher emissions of plant terpenoids also occur during insect herbivory (Langenheim 1994)....
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Oregon State University1, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign2, North Carolina State University3, Michigan State University4, James Hutton Institute5, UPRRP College of Natural Sciences6, University of California, Davis7, Colorado State University8, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill9
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors identify priorities for research in this area: (1) develop model host-microbiome systems for crop plants and non-crop plants with associated microbial culture collections and reference genomes, (2) define core microbiomes and metagenomes in these model systems, (3) elucidate the rules of synthetic, functionally programmable microbiome assembly, and (4) determine functional mechanisms of plant microbiome interactions.
Abstract: Feeding a growing world population amidst climate change requires optimizing the reliability, resource use, and environmental impacts of food production. One way to assist in achieving these goals is to integrate beneficial plant microbiomes-i.e., those enhancing plant growth, nutrient use efficiency, abiotic stress tolerance, and disease resistance-into agricultural production. This integration will require a large-scale effort among academic researchers, industry researchers, and farmers to understand and manage plant-microbiome interactions in the context of modern agricultural systems. Here, we identify priorities for research in this area: (1) develop model host-microbiome systems for crop plants and non-crop plants with associated microbial culture collections and reference genomes, (2) define core microbiomes and metagenomes in these model systems, (3) elucidate the rules of synthetic, functionally programmable microbiome assembly, (4) determine functional mechanisms of plant-microbiome interactions, and (5) characterize and refine plant genotype-by-environment-by-microbiome-by-management interactions. Meeting these goals should accelerate our ability to design and implement effective agricultural microbiome manipulations and management strategies, which, in turn, will pay dividends for both the consumers and producers of the world food supply.
547 citations
"The bud rot pathogens infecting can..." refers background in this paper
...…of the inflorescence to pathogens, as well as the concomitant changes in host gene expression (Balthazar et al. 2020) and associated changes in the composition of the microbiome (Busby et al. 2017), should provide useful avenues towards the management of these destructive bud pathogens....
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