The consideration of future consequences: Weighing immediate and distant outcomes of behavior.
01 Apr 1994-Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (American Psychological Association)-Vol. 66, Iss: 4, pp 742-752
TL;DR: This paper proposed a new construct called consideration of future consequences (CFC), which is hypothesized to be a stable individual difference in the extent to which people consider distant versus immediate consequences of potential behaviors.
Abstract: We propose a new construct called consideration of future consequences (CFC), which is hypothesized to be a stable individual difference in the extent to which people consider distant versus immediate consequences of potential behaviors. Following a description of the construct itself, a measure of this individual difference is developed and validated. Data collected from 7 samples of college students indicates that the measure has acceptable reliability and validity. In addition, evidence of the role of CFC in regulating affective responses to negative events is reviewed. The utility of the CFC construct is demonstrated in 2 studies
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TL;DR: Empirical and conceptual developments over the past four years on attitudes and persuasion are reviewed, with particular attention paid to work on attitude accessibility, ambivalence, and the affective versus cognitive bases of attitudes.
Abstract: ▪ Abstract We review empirical and conceptual developments over the past four years (1992–1995) on attitudes and persuasion. A voluminous amount of material was produced concerning attitude structure, attitude change, and the consequences of holding attitudes. In the structure area, particular attention is paid to work on attitude accessiblity, ambivalence, and the affective versus cognitive bases of attitudes. In persuasion, our review examines research that has focused on high effort cognitive processes (central route), low effort processes (peripheral route), and the multiple roles by which variables can have an impact on attitudes. Special emphasis is given to work on cognitive dissonance and other biases in message processing, and on the multiple processes by which mood influences evaluations. Work on the consequences of attitudes focuses on the impact of attitudes on behavior and social judgments.
3,365 citations
Cites background from "The consideration of future consequ..."
...…been found (e.g. Hansen & Shantz 1995), and some negative feelings, such as fear, have at times led to more favorable perceptions of message advocacies (Struckman-Johnson et al 1994), perhaps through mood-specific changes in perceptions of the arguments in the message (see Petty & Wegener 1991)....
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TL;DR: The role of mindfulness in curtailing negative functioning and enhancing positive outcomes in several important life domains, including mental health, physical health, behavioral regulation, and interpersonal relationships is discussed in this paper.
Abstract: Interest in mindfulness and its enhancement has burgeoned in recent years. In this article, we discuss in detail the nature of mindfulness and its relation to other, established theories of attention and awareness in day-to-day life. We then examine theory and evidence for the role of mindfulness in curtailing negative functioning and enhancing positive outcomes in several important life domains, including mental health, physical health, behavioral regulation, and interpersonal relationships. The processes through which mindfulness is theorized to have its beneficial effects are then discussed, along with proposed directions for theoretical development and empirical research.
2,796 citations
Cites background from "The consideration of future consequ..."
...Gestalt psychologists have been careful to note that living “in the present” is conceptually distinct from living “for the present,” which can imply impulsiveness, hedonism, fatalism ( Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999 ) or a disregard for the consequences of one's behavior ( Strathman, Gleicher, & Boninger, 1994 )....
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TL;DR: The Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (ZPI) as mentioned in this paper is a measure assessing personal variations in time perspective profiles and specific time perspective biases, and it has been shown to have convergent, divergent, discriminant and predictive validity.
Abstract: Time perspective (TP), a fundamental dimension in the construction of psychological time, emerges from cognitive processes partitioning human experience into past, present, and future temporal frames. The authors’ research program proposes that TP is a pervasive and powerful yet largely unrecognized influence on much human behavior. Although TP variations are learned and modified by a variety of personal, social, and institutional influences, TP also functions as an individual-differences variable. Reported is a new measure assessing personal variations in TP profiles and specific TP biases. The five factors of the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory were established through exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses and demonstrate acceptable internal and test–retest reliability. Convergent, divergent, discriminant, and predictive validity are shown by correlational and experimental research supplemented by case studies.
2,651 citations
Cites background from "The consideration of future consequ..."
...Contemporary social– cognitive thinking, as represented in Albert Bandura’s ( 1997 ) self-effi cacy theory, advances a tripartite temporal infl uence on behavioral self-regulation as generated by effi cacy beliefs grounded in past experiences, current appraisals, and refl ections on future options....
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...The goal of the research program reported here is to refocus efforts toward recognizing the centrality of TP in many domains of psychology as well as promoting the value of including TP in new research paradigms as an independent, dependent, or intervening variable....
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...…for many negative life consequences, among them mental health problems, juvenile delinquency, crime, and addictions, when they function in a predominantly future-oriented society (e.g., see DeVolder and Lens 1982 ; Fraisse 1963 ; Levine 1997 ; Nuttin 1985 ; Strathman et al. 1994 ; Zaleski 1994 )....
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...…complicating infl uence of the other temporal dimensions; examples are a future anxiety scale (Zaleski 1996 ), the consideration of future consequences scale (Strathman et al. 1994 ), and a wellknown sensation-seeking scale whose features emphasize present-oriented functioning (Zuckerman 1994 )....
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TL;DR: This article found that participants on both platforms were more naive and less dishonest compared to MTurk participants, and ProA and CrowdFlower participants produced data quality that was higher than CF's and comparable to M-Turk's.
1,537 citations
TL;DR: The authors highlight the unique predictions afforded by a focus on proactive coping and the importance of understanding how people avoid and offset potential stressors.
Abstract: In a conceptual and temporal framework, derived from research on social cognition, social interaction, and stress and coping, the authors analyze the processes through which people anticipate or detect potential stressors and act in advance to prevent them or to mute their impact (proactive coping). The framework specifies five stages in proactive coping: (1) resource accumulation, (2) recognition of potential stressors, (3) initial appraisal, (4) preliminary coping efforts, and (5) elicitation and use of feedback concerning initial efforts. The authors detail the role of individual differences skills, and resources at each stage. They highlight the unique predictions afforded by a focus on proactive coping and the importance of understanding how people avoid and offset potential stressors.
1,456 citations
References
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01 Jan 1975TL;DR: In this article, the Mathematical Basis for Multiple Regression/Correlation and Identification of the Inverse Matrix Elements is presented. But it does not address the problem of missing data.
Abstract: Contents: Preface. Introduction. Bivariate Correlation and Regression. Multiple Regression/Correlation With Two or More Independent Variables. Data Visualization, Exploration, and Assumption Checking: Diagnosing and Solving Regression Problems I. Data-Analytic Strategies Using Multiple Regression/Correlation. Quantitative Scales, Curvilinear Relationships, and Transformations. Interactions Among Continuous Variables. Categorical or Nominal Independent Variables. Interactions With Categorical Variables. Outliers and Multicollinearity: Diagnosing and Solving Regression Problems II. Missing Data. Multiple Regression/Correlation and Causal Models. Alternative Regression Models: Logistic, Poisson Regression, and the Generalized Linear Model. Random Coefficient Regression and Multilevel Models. Longitudinal Regression Methods. Multiple Dependent Variables: Set Correlation. Appendices: The Mathematical Basis for Multiple Regression/Correlation and Identification of the Inverse Matrix Elements. Determination of the Inverse Matrix and Applications Thereof.
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Abstract: The effects of reward or reinforcement on preceding behavior depend in part on whether the person perceives the reward as contingent on his own behavior or independent of it. Acquisition and performance differ in situations perceived as determined by skill versus chance. Persons may also differ in generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. This report summarizes several experiments which define group differences in behavior when Ss perceive reinforcement as contingent on their behavior versus chance or experimenter control. The report also describes the development of tests of individual differences in a generalized belief in internal-external control and provides reliability, discriminant validity and normative data for 1 test, along with a description of the results of several studies of construct validity.
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TL;DR: A scale measuring dispositional optimism, defined in terms of generalized outcome expectancies, was used in a longitudinal study of symptom reporting among a group of undergraduates and predicted that subjects who initially reported being highly optimistic were subsequently less likely to report being bothered by symptoms.
Abstract: This article describes a scale measuring dispositional optimism, defined in terms of generalized outcome expectancies. Two preliminary studies assessed the scale's psychometric properties and its relationships with several other instruments. The scale was then used in a longitudinal study of symptom reporting among a group of undergraduates. Specifically, respondents were asked to complete three questionnaires 4 weeks before the end of a semester. Included in the questionnaire battery was the measure of optimism, a measure of private self-consciousness, and a 39-item physical symptom checklist. Subjects completed the same set of questionnaires again on the last day of class. Consistent with predictions, subjects who initially reported being highly optimistic were subsequently less likely to report being bothered by symptoms (even after correcting for initial symptom-report levels) than were subjects who initially reported being less optimistic. This effect tended to be stronger among persons high in private self-consciousness than among those lower in private self-consciousness. Discussion centers on other health related applications of the optimism scale, and the relationships between our theoretical orientation and several related theories.
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TL;DR: In this paper, a set of 100 unipolar terms for personality traits was developed and compared with previously developed ones based on far larger sets of trait adjectives, as well as with the scales from the NEO and Hogan personality inventories.
Abstract: To satisfy the need in personality research for factorially univocal measures of each of the 5 domains that subsume most English-language terms for personality-traits, new sets of Big-Five factor markers were investigated. In studies of adjective-anchored bipolar rating scales, a transparent format was found to produce factor markers that were more univocal than the same scales administered in the traditional format. Nonetheless, even the transparent bipolar scales proved less robust as factor markers than did parallel sets of adjectives administered in unipolar format. A set of 100 unipolar terms proved to be highly robust across quite diverse samples of self and peer descriptions. These new markers were compared with previously developed ones based on far larger sets of trait adjectives, as well as with the scales from the NEO and Hogan personality inventories.
4,777 citations