The effects of different durations of static stretching within a comprehensive warm-up on voluntary and evoked contractile properties
02 May 2018-European Journal of Applied Physiology (Springer Berlin Heidelberg)-Vol. 118, Iss: 7, pp 1427-1445
TL;DR: While 120 s SS per muscle increased ROM, even within a comprehensive warm-up routine, it also elicited notable performance decrements and moderate durations of SS were observed to improve ROM whilst either having negligible or beneficial (but not detrimental) effects on specific aspects of athletic performance.
Abstract: Evidence for performance decrements following prolonged static stretching (SS) has led to a paradigm shift in stretching routines within a warm-up. Rather than SS, dynamic stretching (DS) and dynamic activity (DA) have replaced SS within warm-up routines. The objective of the present study was to compare the effect of differing lower limb SS durations (30 [SS30s], 60 [SS60s] or 120 s [SS120s] of SS per muscle group or no-stretch control) within a comprehensive warm-up protocol consisting of aerobic activity, DS and DA. Sixteen male participants completed the four stretching conditions in a randomized order, after a 5-min low-intensity (cycle) warm-up and before a DS/DA component on separate days. Tests included passive hip and knee ranges of motion (ROM), maximum voluntary knee extensor/flexor force, force produced at 100 ms (F100), vertical jump height and evoked knee extensor contractile properties. For hip flexion (hamstrings) ROM, SS120s provided the largest increase (5.6–11.7%) followed by SS60s (4.3–11.4%), control (4.4–10.6%) and SS30s (3.6–11.1%). For knee flexion (quadriceps) ROM, SS30s provided the largest increase (9.3–18.2%) followed by SS120s (6.5–16.3%), SS60s (7.2–15.2%) and control (6.3–15.2%). There were decreases in quadriceps F100 following SS in SS120s (29.6%) only. There were increases in vertical jump performance in the control (6.2%), SS60s (4.6%) and SS30s (3.3%). While 120 s SS per muscle increased ROM, even within a comprehensive warm-up routine, it also elicited notable performance decrements. However, moderate durations of SS were observed to improve ROM whilst either having negligible or beneficial (but not detrimental) effects on specific aspects of athletic performance.
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TL;DR: The effects of foam rolling on performance and recovery are rather minor and partly negligible, but can be relevant in some cases (e.g., to increase sprint performance and flexibility or to reduce muscle pain sensation).
Abstract: Foam rolling is thought to improve muscular performance and flexibility as well as to alleviate muscle fatigue and soreness. For this reason, foam rolling has become a popular intervention in all kinds of sport settings used to increase the efficiency of training or competition preparation as well as to speed post-exercise recovery. The objective of this meta-analysis was to compare the effects of foam rolling applied before (pre-rolling as a warm-up activity) and after (post-rolling as a recovery strategy) exercise on sprint, jump, and strength performance as well as on flexibility and muscle pain outcomes and to identify whether self-massage with a foam roller or a roller massager is more effective. A comprehensive and structured literature search was performed using the PubMed, Google Scholar, PEDro, and Cochrane Library search engines. Twenty-one studies were located that met the inclusion criteria. Fourteen studies used pre-rolling, while seven studies used post-rolling. Pre-rolling resulted in a small improvement in sprint performance (+0.7%, g = 0.28) and flexibility (+4.0%, g = 0.34), whereas the effect on jump (-1.9%, g = 0.09) and strength performance (+1.8%, g = 0.12) was negligible. Post-rolling slightly attenuated exercise-induced decreases in sprint (+3.1%, g = 0.34) and strength performance (+3.9 %, g = 0.21). It also reduced muscle pain perception (+6.0%, g = 0.47), whereas its effect on jump performance (-0.2%, g = 0.06) was trivial. Of the twenty-one studies, fourteen used foam rollers, while the other seven used roller massage bars/sticks. A tendency was found for foam rollers to offer larger effects on the recovery of strength performance (+5.6%, g = 0.27 vs. -0.1%, g = -0.01) than roller massagers. The differences in the effects between foam rolling devices in terms of pre-rolling did not seem to be of practical relevance (overall performance: +2.7 %, g = 0.11 vs. +0.4%, g = 0.21; flexibility: +5.0%, g = 0.32 vs. +1.6%, g = 0.39). Overall, it was determined that the effects of foam rolling on performance and recovery are rather minor and partly negligible, but can be relevant in some cases (e.g., to increase sprint performance and flexibility or to reduce muscle pain sensation). Evidence seems to justify the widespread use of foam rolling as a warm-up activity rather than a recovery tool.
128 citations
TL;DR: Previous understanding of harmful StS effects on subsequent strength and power activities has to be updated and short-duration StS should be included as an important warm-up component before the uptake of recreational sports activities due to its potential positive effect on flexibility and musculotendinous injury prevention.
Abstract: The effects of static stretching (StS) on subsequent strength and power activities has been one of the most debated topics in sport science literature over the past decades. The aim of this review is (1) to summarize previous and current findings on the acute effects of StS on muscle strength and power performances; (2) to update readers' knowledge related to previous caveats; and (3) to discuss the underlying physiological mechanisms of short-duration StS when performed as single-mode treatment or when integrated into a full warm-up routine. Over the last two decades, StS has been considered harmful to subsequent strength and power performances. Accordingly, it has been recommended not to apply StS before strength- and power-related activities. More recent evidence suggests that when performed as a single-mode treatment or when integrated within a full warm-up routine including aerobic activity, dynamic-stretching, and sport-specific activities, short-duration StS (≤60 s per muscle group) trivially impairs subsequent strength and power activities (∆1-2%). Yet, longer StS durations (>60 s per muscle group) appear to induce substantial and practically relevant declines in strength and power performances (∆4.0-7.5%). Moreover, recent evidence suggests that when included in a full warm-up routine, short-duration StS may even contribute to lower the risk of sustaining musculotendinous injuries especially with high-intensity activities (e.g., sprint running and change of direction speed). It seems that during short-duration StS, neuromuscular activation and musculotendinous stiffness appear not to be affected compared with long-duration StS. Among other factors, this could be due to an elevated muscle temperature induced by a dynamic warm-up program. More specifically, elevated muscle temperature leads to increased muscle fiber conduction-velocity and improved binding of contractile proteins (actin, myosin). Therefore, our previous understanding of harmful StS effects on subsequent strength and power activities has to be updated. In fact, short-duration StS should be included as an important warm-up component before the uptake of recreational sports activities due to its potential positive effect on flexibility and musculotendinous injury prevention. However, in high-performance athletes, short-duration StS has to be applied with caution due to its negligible but still prevalent negative effects on subsequent strength and power performances, which could have an impact on performance during competition.
61 citations
Cites background from "The effects of different durations ..."
...This was mainly substantiated by the thought that greater ROM reduces resistance to movement and improves movement economy (Behm, 2018)....
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...The general belief that spread from the World Wars until the 1990s is that StS promoted flexibility and improved athletic performance (Behm, 2018)....
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...There is historical tradition saying that stretching has been practiced for thousands of years, mostly by warriors before combat (Behm, 2018)....
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...…harmful effects of StS on subsequent strength- and power-related activities (Behm et al., 2001; Cornwell et al., 2002; Shrier, 2004a; Wallmann et al., 2005; Young et al., 2006; Cramer et al., 2007; Kay and Blazevich, 2008; McHugh and Nesse, 2008; Behm, 2018; Opplert and Babault, 2018)....
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...As a result, it has been widely recommended to avoid performing prolonged StS before strength- and power-related tasks (Magnusson and Renström, 2006; Garber et al., 2011; Simic et al., 2013) and to favor dynamic stretching exercises instead (Behm, 2018)....
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TL;DR: The effects of a 5 × 60 s static stretching exercise changes the muscle-tendon functions (RoM, MVC), which are related to mechanical changes of the muscle but not the tendon structure, respectively, and changes in muscle stiffness were only observed up to 5 min after the stretching exercise.
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to investigate the time course of the changes of muscle-tendon mechanical properties and the function responses of the plantar flexor muscles following 5 × 60 s of sta...
42 citations
Cites background from "The effects of different durations ..."
...Reid et al. (2018) demonstrated that an additional aerobic activity (dynamic activity and dynamic stretching) to a static stretching exercise up to 60 s even can have a beneficial effect on maximum performance, while 120 s of static stretching (including aerobics) lead to a decrease in performance....
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TL;DR: More information is needed to better understand both the warm-up components and mechanisms that contribute to performance enhancements or impairments when SS is incorporated within a pre-activitywarm-up.
Abstract: Whereas a variety of pre-exercise activities have been incorporated as part of a “warm-up” prior to work, combat, and athletic activities for millennia, the inclusion of static stretching (SS) within a warm-up has lost favor in the last 25 years. Research emphasized the possibility of SS-induced impairments in subsequent performance following prolonged stretching without proper dynamic warm-up activities. Proposed mechanisms underlying stretch-induced deficits include both neural (i.e., decreased voluntary activation, persistent inward current effects on motoneuron excitability) and morphological (i.e., changes in the force–length relationship, decreased Ca2+ sensitivity, alterations in parallel elastic component) factors. Psychological influences such as a mental energy deficit and nocebo effects could also adversely affect performance. However, significant practical limitations exist within published studies, e.g., long-stretching durations, stretching exercises with little task specificity, lack of warm-up before/after stretching, testing performed immediately after stretch completion, and risk of investigator and participant bias. Recent research indicates that appropriate durations of static stretching performed within a full warm-up (i.e., aerobic activities before and task-specific dynamic stretching and intense physical activities after SS) have trivial effects on subsequent performance with some evidence of improved force output at longer muscle lengths. For conditions in which muscular force production is compromised by stretching, knowledge of the underlying mechanisms would aid development of mitigation strategies. However, these mechanisms are yet to be perfectly defined. More information is needed to better understand both the warm-up components and mechanisms that contribute to performance enhancements or impairments when SS is incorporated within a pre-activity warm-up.
40 citations
Journal Article•
TL;DR: The results indicate that when performed prior to exercise, DS is beneficial for the hamstring muscles in terms of increasing flexibility and reducing stiffness.
Abstract: Dynamic stretching (DS) is often performed during warm-up to help avoid hamstring muscle injuries, increase joint flexibility, and optimize performance. We examined the effects of DS of the hamstring muscles on passive knee extension range of motion (ROM), passive torque (PT) at the onset of pain (as a measure of stretch tolerance), and passive stiffness of the muscle-tendon unit over an extended period after stretching. Twenty-four healthy subjects participated, with 12 each in the experimental and control groups. Stretching was performed, and measurements were recorded using an isokinetic dynamometer pre-intervention, and at 0, 15, 30, 45, 60, 75, and 90 min post-intervention. DS consisted of ten 30-s sets of 15 repetitions of extension and relaxation of the hamstrings. ROM increased significantly (range, 7%-10%) immediately after DS, and the increase was sustained over 90 min. PT at the onset of pain also increased immediately by 10% but returned to baseline by 30 min. Passive stiffness decreased significantly (range, 7.9%-16.7%) immediately after DS, and the decrease was sustained over 90 min. Post-DS values were normalized to pre-DS values for the respective outcomes in both groups. ROM was significantly higher (range, 7.4%-10%) and passive stiffness was significantly lower (range, 5.4%-14.9%) in the experimental group relative to the control group at all time points. Normalized PT values at the onset of pain were significantly higher in the experimental group at 0-15 min than in the controls, but the differences were smaller at 30-45 min and not significant thereafter. We conclude that DS increases ROM and decreases passive stiffness in a sustained manner, and increases PT at the onset of pain for a shorter period. Overall, our results indicate that when performed prior to exercise, DS is beneficial for the hamstring muscles in terms of increasing flexibility and reducing stiffness.
34 citations
Cites background from "The effects of different durations ..."
...In particular, if SS is prolonged and performed in isolation, it can lead to impairments (Behm et al., 2011; 2016; Kay et al., 2012), though if performed for an appropriate length of time and within a full warm-up regimen, impairments are inconsequential (Blazevich et al., 2018; Reid et al., 2018)....
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..., 2012), though if performed for an appropriate length of time and within a full warm-up regimen, impairments are inconsequential (Blazevich et al., 2018; Reid et al., 2018)....
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TL;DR: The data indicate that prolonged stretching of a single muscle decreases voluntary strength for up to 1 h after the stretch as a result of impaired activation and contractile force in the early phase of deficit and by impaired contractiles force throughout the entire period of deficit.
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to assess strength performance after an acute bout of maximally tolerable passive stretch (PSmax) in human subjects. Ten young adults (6 men and 4 women) underwent 30 ...
728 citations
"The effects of different durations ..." refers background in this paper
...However, it has previously been shown that static stretching can decrease twitch forces by approximately 6–18% (Avela et al. 2004; Behm et al. 2001; Fowles et al. 2000; Ryan et al. 2008), although this is not always observed (Herda et al....
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...Researchers have previously reported decreases in VA% following various SS interventions (Fowles et al. 2000; Behm 2001)....
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...2008), length–tension relationship and deformation of the connective tissue such that the force producing capabilities of the musculotendinous unit (MTU) were limited (Power et al. 2004; Fowles et al. 2000)....
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