The Mandala Culture of Anarchy: the Pre-Colonial Southeast Asian International Society
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined the interplay that had existed between pre-colonial Southeast Asian empires and the hierarchical East Asian international society, in particular during the 13th-16th Century.
Abstract: Throughout the years, study on pre-colonial Southeast Asian international relations has not garnered major attention because it had long been seen as an integral part of the China-centred tribute system. There is a need to provide greater understanding of the uniqueness of the international system as different regions have different ontologies to comprehend its dynamics and structures. This paper contributes to the pre-colonial Southeast Asian literature by examining the interplay that had existed between pre-colonial Southeast Asian empires and the hierarchical East Asian international society, in particular during the 13th-16th Century. The paper argues that Southeast Asian international relations in pre-colonial time were characterized by complex political structures with the influence of Mandala values. In that structural context, the Majapahit Empire, one of the biggest empires at that time had its own constitutional structures of an international society, albeit still sought close relations with China.
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TL;DR: The Essay concludes that practitioners theorize, and theorists practice, use these intellectual tools differently because the goals and orientations of theorists and practitioners, and the constraints under which they act, differ.
Abstract: Much has been written about theory and practice in the law, and the tension between practitioners and theorists. Judges do not cite theoretical articles often; they rarely "apply" theories to particular cases. These arguments are not revisited. Instead the Essay explores the working and interaction of theory and practice, practitioners and theorists. The Essay starts with a story about solving a legal issue using our intellectual tools - theory, practice, and their progenies: experience and "gut." Next the Essay elaborates on the nature of theory, practice, experience and "gut." The third part of the Essay discusses theories that are helpful to practitioners and those that are less helpful. The Essay concludes that practitioners theorize, and theorists practice. They use these intellectual tools differently because the goals and orientations of theorists and practitioners, and the constraints under which they act, differ. Theory, practice, experience and "gut" help us think, remember, decide and create. They complement each other like the two sides of the same coin: distinct but inseparable.
2,077 citations
Book•
01 Jan 2000
TL;DR: The seeker after the truth is not one who studies the writings of the ancients and, following his natural disposition, puts his trust in them, but rather, one who suspects his faith in them and questions what he gathers from them, the one who submits to argument and demonstration, and not to the sayings of a human being whose nature is fraught with all kinds of imperfection and deformation as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: Therefore, the seeker after the truth is not one who studies the writings of the ancients and, following his natural disposition, puts his trust in them, but rather the one who suspects his faith in them and questions what he gathers from them, the one who submits to argument and demonstration, and not to the sayings of a human being whose nature is fraught with all kinds of imperfection and de‹ciency. Thus the duty of the man who investigates the writings of scientists, if learning the truth is his goal, is to make himself the enemy of all that he reads, and, applying his mind to the core and margins of its content, attack it from every side. He should also suspect himself as he performs his critical examination of it, so that he may avoid falling into either prejudice or leniency. (Ibn al-Haytham)1
512 citations
Book•
02 Jul 2020TL;DR: Spruyt explains the political organization of three non-European international societies from early modernity to the late nineteenth century The Ottoman, Safavid and Mughal empires; the Sinocentric tributary system; and the Southeast Asian galactic empires, all which differed in key respects from the modern Westphalian state system as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: Taking an inter-disciplinary approach, Spruyt explains the political organization of three non-European international societies from early modernity to the late nineteenth century The Ottoman, Safavid and Mughal empires; the Sinocentric tributary system; and the Southeast Asian galactic empires, all which differed in key respects from the modern Westphalian state system In each of these societies, collective beliefs were critical in structuring domestic orders and relations with other polities These multi-ethnic empires allowed for greater accommodation and heterogeneity in comparison to the homogeneity that is demanded by the modern nation-state Furthermore, Spruyt examines the encounter between these non-European systems and the West Contrary to unidirectional descriptions of the encounter, these non-Westphalian polities creatively adapted to Western principles of organization and international conduct By illuminating the encounter of the West and these Eurasian polities, this book serves to question the popular wisdom of modernity, wherein the Western nation-state is perceived as the desired norm, to be replicated in other polities
33 citations
01 Jul 2020
20 citations
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Book•
01 Jan 1979
7,932 citations
"The Mandala Culture of Anarchy: the..." refers background in this paper
...Waltz (1979) argued that the international system functions like a market which is ‘interposed between the economic actors and the results they produce....
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Book•
01 Oct 1999TL;DR: Wendt as discussed by the authors describes four factors which can drive structural change from one culture to another - interdependence, common fate, homogenization, and self-restraint - and examines the effects of capitalism and democracy in the emergence of a Kantian culture in the West.
Abstract: Drawing upon philosophy and social theory, Social Theory of International Politics develops a theory of the international system as a social construction. Alexander Wendt clarifies the central claims of the constructivist approach, presenting a structural and idealist worldview which contrasts with the individualism and materialism which underpins much mainstream international relations theory. He builds a cultural theory of international politics, which takes whether states view each other as enemies, rivals or friends as a fundamental determinant. Wendt characterises these roles as 'cultures of anarchy', described as Hobbesian, Lockean and Kantian respectively. These cultures are shared ideas which help shape state interests and capabilities, and generate tendencies in the international system. The book describes four factors which can drive structural change from one culture to another - interdependence, common fate, homogenization, and self-restraint - and examines the effects of capitalism and democracy in the emergence of a Kantian culture in the West.
4,573 citations
"The Mandala Culture of Anarchy: the..." refers background in this paper
...Whereas Kantian anarchy is the most cooperative culture of anarchy in which states identify the other as friends and collective security is the dominant norm (Wendt 1999, p. 297)....
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...Moreover, violence is recognised as a legitimate way to settle disagreements and warfare is one way to form a balance of power (Wendt 1999, pp. 279)....
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...A Hobbesian anarchy refers to the true ‘self-help’ system where there are constant existential threats of warfare between states (Wendt 1999, pp. 259-260)....
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...As Wolters (1999) points out, most of the pre-colonial Southeast Asian Empires practiced the Mandala’s knowledge....
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TL;DR: The Essay concludes that practitioners theorize, and theorists practice, use these intellectual tools differently because the goals and orientations of theorists and practitioners, and the constraints under which they act, differ.
Abstract: Much has been written about theory and practice in the law, and the tension between practitioners and theorists. Judges do not cite theoretical articles often; they rarely "apply" theories to particular cases. These arguments are not revisited. Instead the Essay explores the working and interaction of theory and practice, practitioners and theorists. The Essay starts with a story about solving a legal issue using our intellectual tools - theory, practice, and their progenies: experience and "gut." Next the Essay elaborates on the nature of theory, practice, experience and "gut." The third part of the Essay discusses theories that are helpful to practitioners and those that are less helpful. The Essay concludes that practitioners theorize, and theorists practice. They use these intellectual tools differently because the goals and orientations of theorists and practitioners, and the constraints under which they act, differ. Theory, practice, experience and "gut" help us think, remember, decide and create. They complement each other like the two sides of the same coin: distinct but inseparable.
2,077 citations
"The Mandala Culture of Anarchy: the..." refers background in this paper
...The Majapahit integrated vertically with the divinity as well as horizontally across a territory of people, land, and resources organised in the form of ‘vassal loyalties’ (Tucci 1961, p. 25)....
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Book•
26 Jun 2009
TL;DR: Hierarchy in International Relations as mentioned in this paper is a view of international relations in which states form social contracts that bind both dominant and subordinate members, and the resulting hierarchies have significant effects on the foreign policies of states as well as patterns of international conflict and cooperation.
Abstract: International relations are generally understood as a realm of anarchy in which countries lack any superior authority and interact within a Hobbesian state of nature. In Hierarchy in International Relations, David A. Lake challenges this traditional view, demonstrating that states exercise authority over one another in international hierarchies that vary historically but are still pervasive today. Revisiting the concepts of authority and sovereignty, Lake offers a novel view of international relations in which states form social contracts that bind both dominant and subordinate members. The resulting hierarchies have significant effects on the foreign policies of states as well as patterns of international conflict and cooperation. Focusing largely on U.S.-led hierarchies in the contemporary world, Lake provides a compelling account of the origins, functions, and limits of political order in the modern international system. The book is a model of clarity in theory, research design, and the use of evidence. Motivated by concerns about the declining international legitimacy of the United States following the Iraq War, Hierarchy in International Relations offers a powerful analytic perspective that has important implications for understanding America's position in the world in the years ahead.
555 citations
"The Mandala Culture of Anarchy: the..." refers background in this paper
...For example, Lake (2009) uses the notion of degrees of hierarchy along a singledimensional continuum between total...
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...For example, Lake (2009) uses the notion of ‘degrees of hierarchy’ along a singledimensional continuum between total anarchy and complete hierarchy to identify different forms of hierarchical relations....
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TL;DR: The work of a study group of distinguished scholars as discussed by the authors describes the flood tide of European expansion that began in the 16th century and united the world for the first time in a single economic strategic, and political unit.
Abstract: The work of a study group of distinguished scholars, this book is a systematic investigation of the origins and nature of the international society today. The first section of the book describes the flood tide of European expansion that began in the 16th century and united the world for the first time in a single economic strategic, and political unit. The second section analyzes the process whereby the non-European states came to take their place as members of the same society, while the third section examines the repudiation of European, Russian, and American domination by states and peoples of the Third World, and the subsequent transition from a system based on European hegemony to one that is not. The book concludes with a discussion of the international order that has emerged from the ebb tide of European dominance.
549 citations
"The Mandala Culture of Anarchy: the..." refers background or methods in this paper
...The term international society used in the article refers to Bull & Watson (1984) understanding of international system which is a society of state that is built upon inter-subjectivity through common interests and common values....
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...Bull asserted that international system is a society of states and this society is built upon inter-subjectivity through common interests and common values which they bound themselves by a common set of rules and institutions for the conduct of their relations (Bull & Watson 1984)....
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