The measurement of meaning
01 Jun 1959-Vol. 7, Iss: 3, pp 154-156
About: The article was published on 1959-06-01. It has received 3442 citations till now. The article focuses on the topics: Meaning (existential).
Citations
More filters
TL;DR: A new general theory of acquired similarity and knowledge representation, latent semantic analysis (LSA), is presented and used to successfully simulate such learning and several other psycholinguistic phenomena.
Abstract: How do people know as much as they do with as little information as they get? The problem takes many forms; learning vocabulary from text is an especially dramatic and convenient case for research. A new general theory of acquired similarity and knowledge representation, latent semantic analysis (LSA), is presented and used to successfully simulate such learning and several other psycholinguistic phenomena. By inducing global knowledge indirectly from local co-occurrence data in a large body of representative text, LSA acquired knowledge about the full vocabulary of English at a comparable rate to schoolchildren. LSA uses no prior linguistic or perceptual similarity knowledge; it is based solely on a general mathematical learning method that achieves powerful inductive effects by extracting the right number of dimensions (e.g., 300) to represent objects and contexts. Relations to other theories, phenomena, and problems are sketched.
6,014Â citations
Cites methods from "The measurement of meaning"
...This is closely related to familiar uses of factor analysis and multi-dimensional scaling, and to unfolding, (Carroll & Arabie, in press; Coombs, 1964), but using a particular kind of data and writ very large. Charles Osgood (1971) seems to have anticipated such a theoretical development when computational power eventually rose to the task, as it now has....
[...]
TL;DR: The present conclusion--that attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes have important implicit modes of operation--extends both the construct validity and predictive usefulness of these major theoretical constructs of social psychology.
Abstract: Social behavior is ordinarily treated as being under conscious (if not always thoughtful) control. However, considerable evidence now supports the view that social behavior often operates in an implicit or unconscious fashion. The identifying feature of implicit cognition is that past experience influences judgment in a fashion not introspectively known by the actor. The present conclusion--that attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes have important implicit modes of operation--extends both the construct validity and predictive usefulness of these major theoretical constructs of social psychology. Methodologically, this review calls for increased use of indirect measures--which are imperative in studies of implicit cognition. The theorized ordinariness of implicit stereotyping is consistent with recent findings of discrimination by people who explicitly disavow prejudice. The finding that implicit cognitive effects are often reduced by focusing judges' attention on their judgment task provides a basis for evaluating applications (such as affirmative action) aimed at reducing such unintended discrimination.
5,682Â citations
TL;DR: The exposure-attitude hypothesis as discussed by the authors suggests that mere repeated exposure of the individual to a stimulus object enhances his attitude toward it, i.e., exposure is meant a condition making the stimulus accessible to the individual's perception.
Abstract: The hypothesis is offered that mere repeated exposure of the individual to a stimulus object enhances his attitude toward it. By \"mere\" exposure is meant a condition making the stimulus accessible to the individual's perception. Support for the hypothesis consists of 4 types of evidence, presented and reviewed: (a) the correlation between affective connotation of words and word frequency; (b) the effect of experimentally manipulated frequency of exposure upon the affective connotation of nonsense words and symbols; (c) the correlation between word frequency and the attitude to their referents j (d) the effects of experimentally manipulated frequency of exposure on attitude. The relevance for the exposure-attitude hypothesis of the exploration theory and of the semantic satiation findings were examined.
5,621Â citations
Cites background or result from "The measurement of meaning"
...The present experiment differs from that of Johnson, Thomson, and Frincke (1960) in several other respects which are less critical for the interpretation of results....
[...]
...evidence has already been accumulated (Premack, 1961, 1962, 1963, 1965; Premack & Bahwell, 1959; Premack & Collier, 1962), holds that if the emission of one response, A, is made contingent upon the emission of another response, B, and if A occurs with greater frequency than B, B will gain in the rate of emission. A can, therefore, be considered as having positive reinforcement value which seems to depend alone upon its frequency of occurrence. Contingencies between responses can be introduced by controlling manipulanda or the availability of goal objects. Thus, for instance, in studying these effects in Cebus monkeys, Premack (1963) used four manipulanda: a plunger, a hinged door, a vertically operated lever, and a horizontally operated lever....
[...]
...Premack (1961) was able to demonstrate such an effect in rats 23...
[...]
...In the area of visual arts, Pepper (1919) found that repeated exposure resulted in more positive esthetic judgments of unusual color combinations....
[...]
TL;DR: Contrary to antipathy models, 2 dimensions mattered, and many stereotypes were mixed, either pitying (low competence, high warmth subordinates) or envying (high competence, low warmth competitors).
Abstract: Stereotype research emphasizes systematic processes over seemingly arbitrary contents, but content also may prove systematic. On the basis of stereotypes' intergroup functions, the stereotype content model hypothesizes that (a) 2 primary dimensions are competence and warmth, (b) frequent mixed clusters combine high warmth with low competence (paternalistic) or high competence with low warmth (envious), and (c) distinct emotions (pity, envy, admiration, contempt) differentiate the 4 competence-warmth combinations. Stereotypically, (d) status predicts high competence, and competition predicts low warmth. Nine varied samples rated gender, ethnicity, race, class, age, and disability out-groups. Contrary to antipathy models, 2 dimensions mattered, and many stereotypes were mixed, either pitying (low competence, high warmth subordinates) or envying (high competence, low warmth competitors). Stereotypically, status predicted competence, and competition predicted low warmth.
5,411Â citations
Cites background from "The measurement of meaning"
...For example, sheer activity level is a dimension suggested by the small groups’ task, social, and dominance dimensions (Bales, 1970) or by the semantic differential dimensions of evaluation, potency, and activity ( Osgood, Suci, & Tannenbaum, 1957 )....
[...]
TL;DR: Standard alphabetical procedures for organizing lexical information put together words that are spelled alike and scatter words with similar or related meanings haphazardly through the list.
Abstract: Standard alphabetical procedures for organizing lexical information put together words that are spelled alike and scatter words with similar or related meanings haphazardly through the list. Unfortunately, there is no obvious alternative, no other simple way for lexicographers to keep track of what has been done or for readers to find the word they are looking for. But a frequent objection to this solution is that finding things on an alphabetical list can be tedious and time-consuming. Many people who would like to refer to a dictionary decide not to bother with it because finding the information would interrupt their work and break their train of thought.
5,038Â citations
Cites background from "The measurement of meaning"
...Adjectives expressing evaluations (good/bad, desirable/undesirable) can modify almost any noun; those expressing activity (active/passive, fast/slow) or potency (strong/weak, brave/cowardly) also have wide ranges of applicability (cf. Osgood, Suci, and Tannenbaum, 1957)....
[...]
References
More filters
TL;DR: A new general theory of acquired similarity and knowledge representation, latent semantic analysis (LSA), is presented and used to successfully simulate such learning and several other psycholinguistic phenomena.
Abstract: How do people know as much as they do with as little information as they get? The problem takes many forms; learning vocabulary from text is an especially dramatic and convenient case for research. A new general theory of acquired similarity and knowledge representation, latent semantic analysis (LSA), is presented and used to successfully simulate such learning and several other psycholinguistic phenomena. By inducing global knowledge indirectly from local co-occurrence data in a large body of representative text, LSA acquired knowledge about the full vocabulary of English at a comparable rate to schoolchildren. LSA uses no prior linguistic or perceptual similarity knowledge; it is based solely on a general mathematical learning method that achieves powerful inductive effects by extracting the right number of dimensions (e.g., 300) to represent objects and contexts. Relations to other theories, phenomena, and problems are sketched.
6,014Â citations
TL;DR: The present conclusion--that attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes have important implicit modes of operation--extends both the construct validity and predictive usefulness of these major theoretical constructs of social psychology.
Abstract: Social behavior is ordinarily treated as being under conscious (if not always thoughtful) control. However, considerable evidence now supports the view that social behavior often operates in an implicit or unconscious fashion. The identifying feature of implicit cognition is that past experience influences judgment in a fashion not introspectively known by the actor. The present conclusion--that attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes have important implicit modes of operation--extends both the construct validity and predictive usefulness of these major theoretical constructs of social psychology. Methodologically, this review calls for increased use of indirect measures--which are imperative in studies of implicit cognition. The theorized ordinariness of implicit stereotyping is consistent with recent findings of discrimination by people who explicitly disavow prejudice. The finding that implicit cognitive effects are often reduced by focusing judges' attention on their judgment task provides a basis for evaluating applications (such as affirmative action) aimed at reducing such unintended discrimination.
5,682Â citations
TL;DR: The exposure-attitude hypothesis as discussed by the authors suggests that mere repeated exposure of the individual to a stimulus object enhances his attitude toward it, i.e., exposure is meant a condition making the stimulus accessible to the individual's perception.
Abstract: The hypothesis is offered that mere repeated exposure of the individual to a stimulus object enhances his attitude toward it. By \"mere\" exposure is meant a condition making the stimulus accessible to the individual's perception. Support for the hypothesis consists of 4 types of evidence, presented and reviewed: (a) the correlation between affective connotation of words and word frequency; (b) the effect of experimentally manipulated frequency of exposure upon the affective connotation of nonsense words and symbols; (c) the correlation between word frequency and the attitude to their referents j (d) the effects of experimentally manipulated frequency of exposure on attitude. The relevance for the exposure-attitude hypothesis of the exploration theory and of the semantic satiation findings were examined.
5,621Â citations
TL;DR: Standard alphabetical procedures for organizing lexical information put together words that are spelled alike and scatter words with similar or related meanings haphazardly through the list.
Abstract: Standard alphabetical procedures for organizing lexical information put together words that are spelled alike and scatter words with similar or related meanings haphazardly through the list. Unfortunately, there is no obvious alternative, no other simple way for lexicographers to keep track of what has been done or for readers to find the word they are looking for. But a frequent objection to this solution is that finding things on an alphabetical list can be tedious and time-consuming. Many people who would like to refer to a dictionary decide not to bother with it because finding the information would interrupt their work and break their train of thought.
5,038Â citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors define hedonic consumption as those facets of consumer behavior that relate to the multisensory, fantasy and emotive aspects of product usage experience.
Abstract: This paper defines hedonic consumption as those facets of consumer behavior that relate to the multisensory, fantasy and emotive aspects of product usage experience. After delineating these concept...
4,768Â citations