Journal Article•
The natural experiment.
TL;DR: Direct evidence that seemingly irrelevant events can systematically affect individual perceptions about economic prospects, both on a personal and economy-wide level is provided.
Abstract: Seemingly Irrelevant Events Affect Economic Perceptions and Expectations: The FIFA World Cup 2006 as a Natural Experiment Prominent economic theories have emphasized the role of commonly held perceptions and expectations for determining macroeconomic outcomes. A key empirical question is how such collectively held beliefs are formed. We use the FIFA World Cup 2006 as a natural experiment. We provide direct evidence that seemingly irrelevant events (the outcomes of soccer matches) can systematically affect individual perceptions about economic prospects, both on a personal and economy-wide level. JEL Classification: D8, D0, E0
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TL;DR: These findings provide a unique opportunity for understanding how environmental factors can lead to individual differences in brain development, and for improving the programmes and policies that are designed to alleviate SES-related disparities in mental health and academic achievement.
Abstract: Socioeconomic status (SES) influences brain development. Farah and colleagues discuss evidence that prenatal factors, parent–child interactions and cognitive stimulation mediate this effect, and consider implications for alleviating SES-related disparities in mental health and academic achievement. Human brain development occurs within a socioeconomic context and childhood socioeconomic status (SES) influences neural development — particularly of the systems that subserve language and executive function. Research in humans and in animal models has implicated prenatal factors, parent–child interactions and cognitive stimulation in the home environment in the effects of SES on neural development. These findings provide a unique opportunity for understanding how environmental factors can lead to individual differences in brain development, and for improving the programmes and policies that are designed to alleviate SES-related disparities in mental health and academic achievement.
1,082 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors estimate the elasticity of marginal utility with respect to income using four large cross-sectional surveys of subjective happiness and two panel surveys over 50 countries and time periods between 1972 and 2005.
498 citations
Cites background from "The natural experiment."
...For example, Metrick (1995) studied game shows and estimated that risk behaviour is close to risk neutrality, while Cohen and Einav (2005) investigated insurance purchases, and estimated a coefficient of risk aversion of more than 10....
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TL;DR: The prevalence of risk factors among healthy individuals elucidates the probable occurrence of CAD in near future and genome‐wide association studies have suggested the association of chromosome 9p21.3 in the premature onset of CAD.
Abstract: Coronary artery disease (CAD) is one of the major cardiovascular diseases affecting the global human population. This disease has been proved to be the major cause of death in both the developed and developing countries. Lifestyle, environmental factors, and genetic factors pose as risk factors for the development of cardiovascular disease. The prevalence of risk factors among healthy individuals elucidates the probable occurrence of CAD in near future. Genome-wide association studies have suggested the association of chromosome 9p21.3 in the premature onset of CAD. The risk factors of CAD include diabetes mellitus, hypertension, smoking, hyperlipidemia, obesity, homocystinuria, and psychosocial stress. The eradication and management of CAD has been established through extensive studies and trials. Antiplatelet agents, nitrates, β-blockers, calcium antagonists, and ranolazine are some of the few therapeutic agents used for the relief of symptomatic angina associated with CAD.
400 citations
Cites background from "The natural experiment."
...In understanding the epidemiology of CAD, a “natural experiment” named as the Nippon–Honolulu–San Francisco (Ni‐Hon‐San) was conducted in the1960s, which included cross‐ sectional evaluation of CAD among different migrant Japanese men aged 45–69 years, living in Hawaii and California and native Japanese men in the same age group, living in Japan (Worth, Kato, Rhoads, Kagan, & Syme, 1975)....
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...native Japanese men residing in Japan (Sekikawa et al., 2003; Worth et al., 1975)....
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...Higher cholesterol levels and higher CAD mortality rates were evident in Japanese migrants residing in America than the native Japanese men residing in Japan (Sekikawa et al., 2003; Worth et al., 1975)....
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TL;DR: A review of the literature suggests that cell division, cell expansion, and cell patterning may be affected, driven mainly by increased substrate (sucrose) availability and perhaps also by differential expression of genes involved in cell cycling or cell expansion.
Abstract: Summary
Consequences of increasing atmospheric CO2 concentration on plant structure, an important determinant of physiological and competitive success, have not received sufficient attention in the literature. Understanding how increasing carbon input will influence plant developmental processes, and resultant form, will help bridge the gap between physiological response and ecosystem level phenomena. Growth in elevated CO2 alters plant structure through its effects on both primary and secondary meristems of shoots and roots. Although not well established, a review of the literature suggests that cell division, cell expansion, and cell patterning may be affected, driven mainly by increased substrate (sucrose) availability and perhaps also by differential expression of genes involved in cell cycling (e.g. cyclins) or cell expansion (e.g. xyloglucan endotransglycosylase). Few studies, however, have attempted to elucidate the mechanistic basis for increased growth at the cellular level.
Regardless of specific mechanisms involved, plant leaf size and anatomy are often altered by growth in elevated CO2, but the magnitude of these changes, which often decreases as leaves mature, hinges upon plant genetic plasticity, nutrient availability, temperature, and phenology. Increased leaf growth results more often from increased cell expansion rather than increased division. Leaves of crop species exhibit greater increases in leaf thickness than do leaves of wild species. Increased mesophyll and vascular tissue cross-sectional areas, important determinates of photosynthetic rates and assimilate transport capacity, are often reported. Few studies, however, have quantified characteristics more reflective of leaf function such as spatial relationships among chlorenchyma cells (size, orientation, and surface area), intercellular spaces, and conductive tissue. Greater leaf size and/or more leaves per plant are often noted; plants grown in elevated CO2 exhibited increased leaf area per plant in 66% of studies, compared to 28% of observations reporting no change, and 6% reported a decrease in whole plant leaf area. This resulted in an average net increase in leaf area per plant of 24%. Crop species showed the greatest average increase in whole plant leaf area (+ 37%) compared to tree species (+ 14%) and wild, nonwoody species (+ 15%). Conversely, tree species and wild, nontrees showed the greatest reduction in specific leaf area (– 14% and – 20%) compared to crop plants (– 6%).
Alterations in developmental processes at the shoot apex and within the vascular cambium contributed to increased plant height, altered branching characteristics, and increased stem diameters. The ratio of internode length to node number often increased, but the length and sometimes the number of branches per node was greater, suggesting reduced apical dominance. Data concerning effects of elevated CO2 on stem/branch anatomy, vital for understanding potential shifts in functional relationships of leaves with stems, roots with stems, and leaves with roots, are too few to
make generalizations. Growth in elevated CO2 typically leads to increased root length, diameter, and altered branching patterns. Altered branching characteristics in both shoots and roots may impact competitive relationships above and below the ground.
Understanding how increased carbon assimilation affects growth processes (cell division, cell expansion, and cell patterning) will facilitate a better understanding of how plant form will change as atmospheric CO2 increases. Knowing how basic growth processes respond to increased carbon inputs may also provide a mechanistic basis for the differential phenotypic plasticity exhibited by different plant species/functional types to elevated CO2.
393 citations
TL;DR: Although the proportion of SD and SI responses inversely relating to CO(2) are similar, SD is more strongly affected by various environmental stresses, and thus SI-based CO(1) reconstructions are probably more accurate than experimental responses, which casts doubt on previous claims that stomata cannot respond to CO-2 concentrations above present-day levels.
390 citations
References
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TL;DR: These findings provide a unique opportunity for understanding how environmental factors can lead to individual differences in brain development, and for improving the programmes and policies that are designed to alleviate SES-related disparities in mental health and academic achievement.
Abstract: Socioeconomic status (SES) influences brain development. Farah and colleagues discuss evidence that prenatal factors, parent–child interactions and cognitive stimulation mediate this effect, and consider implications for alleviating SES-related disparities in mental health and academic achievement. Human brain development occurs within a socioeconomic context and childhood socioeconomic status (SES) influences neural development — particularly of the systems that subserve language and executive function. Research in humans and in animal models has implicated prenatal factors, parent–child interactions and cognitive stimulation in the home environment in the effects of SES on neural development. These findings provide a unique opportunity for understanding how environmental factors can lead to individual differences in brain development, and for improving the programmes and policies that are designed to alleviate SES-related disparities in mental health and academic achievement.
1,082 citations
TL;DR: The prevalence of risk factors among healthy individuals elucidates the probable occurrence of CAD in near future and genome‐wide association studies have suggested the association of chromosome 9p21.3 in the premature onset of CAD.
Abstract: Coronary artery disease (CAD) is one of the major cardiovascular diseases affecting the global human population. This disease has been proved to be the major cause of death in both the developed and developing countries. Lifestyle, environmental factors, and genetic factors pose as risk factors for the development of cardiovascular disease. The prevalence of risk factors among healthy individuals elucidates the probable occurrence of CAD in near future. Genome-wide association studies have suggested the association of chromosome 9p21.3 in the premature onset of CAD. The risk factors of CAD include diabetes mellitus, hypertension, smoking, hyperlipidemia, obesity, homocystinuria, and psychosocial stress. The eradication and management of CAD has been established through extensive studies and trials. Antiplatelet agents, nitrates, β-blockers, calcium antagonists, and ranolazine are some of the few therapeutic agents used for the relief of symptomatic angina associated with CAD.
400 citations
TL;DR: A review of the literature suggests that cell division, cell expansion, and cell patterning may be affected, driven mainly by increased substrate (sucrose) availability and perhaps also by differential expression of genes involved in cell cycling or cell expansion.
Abstract: Summary
Consequences of increasing atmospheric CO2 concentration on plant structure, an important determinant of physiological and competitive success, have not received sufficient attention in the literature. Understanding how increasing carbon input will influence plant developmental processes, and resultant form, will help bridge the gap between physiological response and ecosystem level phenomena. Growth in elevated CO2 alters plant structure through its effects on both primary and secondary meristems of shoots and roots. Although not well established, a review of the literature suggests that cell division, cell expansion, and cell patterning may be affected, driven mainly by increased substrate (sucrose) availability and perhaps also by differential expression of genes involved in cell cycling (e.g. cyclins) or cell expansion (e.g. xyloglucan endotransglycosylase). Few studies, however, have attempted to elucidate the mechanistic basis for increased growth at the cellular level.
Regardless of specific mechanisms involved, plant leaf size and anatomy are often altered by growth in elevated CO2, but the magnitude of these changes, which often decreases as leaves mature, hinges upon plant genetic plasticity, nutrient availability, temperature, and phenology. Increased leaf growth results more often from increased cell expansion rather than increased division. Leaves of crop species exhibit greater increases in leaf thickness than do leaves of wild species. Increased mesophyll and vascular tissue cross-sectional areas, important determinates of photosynthetic rates and assimilate transport capacity, are often reported. Few studies, however, have quantified characteristics more reflective of leaf function such as spatial relationships among chlorenchyma cells (size, orientation, and surface area), intercellular spaces, and conductive tissue. Greater leaf size and/or more leaves per plant are often noted; plants grown in elevated CO2 exhibited increased leaf area per plant in 66% of studies, compared to 28% of observations reporting no change, and 6% reported a decrease in whole plant leaf area. This resulted in an average net increase in leaf area per plant of 24%. Crop species showed the greatest average increase in whole plant leaf area (+ 37%) compared to tree species (+ 14%) and wild, nonwoody species (+ 15%). Conversely, tree species and wild, nontrees showed the greatest reduction in specific leaf area (– 14% and – 20%) compared to crop plants (– 6%).
Alterations in developmental processes at the shoot apex and within the vascular cambium contributed to increased plant height, altered branching characteristics, and increased stem diameters. The ratio of internode length to node number often increased, but the length and sometimes the number of branches per node was greater, suggesting reduced apical dominance. Data concerning effects of elevated CO2 on stem/branch anatomy, vital for understanding potential shifts in functional relationships of leaves with stems, roots with stems, and leaves with roots, are too few to
make generalizations. Growth in elevated CO2 typically leads to increased root length, diameter, and altered branching patterns. Altered branching characteristics in both shoots and roots may impact competitive relationships above and below the ground.
Understanding how increased carbon assimilation affects growth processes (cell division, cell expansion, and cell patterning) will facilitate a better understanding of how plant form will change as atmospheric CO2 increases. Knowing how basic growth processes respond to increased carbon inputs may also provide a mechanistic basis for the differential phenotypic plasticity exhibited by different plant species/functional types to elevated CO2.
393 citations
TL;DR: Although the proportion of SD and SI responses inversely relating to CO(2) are similar, SD is more strongly affected by various environmental stresses, and thus SI-based CO(1) reconstructions are probably more accurate than experimental responses, which casts doubt on previous claims that stomata cannot respond to CO-2 concentrations above present-day levels.
390 citations
TL;DR: This article used meteorological data to identify the causal effect of environmental disasters on long-run economic development and found that national incomes decline, relative to their pre-disaster trend, and do not recover within twenty years.
Abstract: Does the environment have a causal effect on economic development? Using meteorological data, we reconstruct every country's exposure to the universe of tropical cyclones during 1950-2008. We exploit random within-country year-to-year variation in cyclone strikes to identify the causal effect of environmental disasters on long-run growth. We compare each country's growth rate to itself in the years immediately before and after exposure, accounting for the distribution of cyclones in preceding years. The data reject hypotheses that disasters stimulate growth or that short-run losses disappear following migrations or transfers of wealth. Instead, we find robust evidence that national incomes decline, relative to their pre-disaster trend, and do not recover within twenty years. Both rich and poor countries exhibit this response, with losses magnified in countries with less historical cyclone experience. Income losses arise from a small but persistent suppression of annual growth rates spread across the fifteen years following disaster, generating large and significant cumulative effects: a 90th percentile event reduces per capita incomes by 7.4% two decades later, effectively undoing 3.7 years of average development. The gradual nature of these losses render them inconspicuous to a casual observer, however simulations indicate that they have dramatic influence over the long-run development of countries that are endowed with regular or continuous exposure to disaster. Linking these results to projections of future cyclone activity, we estimate that under conservative discounting assumptions the present discounted cost of "business as usual" climate change is roughly $9.7 trillion larger than previously thought.Institutional subscribers to the NBER working paper series, and residents of developing countries may download this paper without additional charge at www.nber.org.
321 citations