The nature of LINER galaxies: - Ubiquitous hot old stars and rare accreting black holes
Max Planck Society1, University of La Laguna2, Spanish National Research Council3, University of Vienna4, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina5, Instituto Superior Técnico6, Leibniz Institute for Astrophysics Potsdam7, University of Cambridge8, Complutense University of Madrid9, Heidelberg University10, University of St Andrews11
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors used integral field spectroscopic data from the CALIFA survey to compare the observed radial surface brightness profiles with what is expected from illumination by an AGN.
Abstract: Context. Galaxies, which often contain ionised gas, sometimes also exhibit a so-called low-ionisation nuclear emission line region (LINER). For 30 years, this was attributed to a central mass-accreting supermassive black hole (more commonly known as active galactic nucleus, AGN) of low luminosity, making LINER galaxies the largest AGN sub-population, which dominate in numbers over higher luminosity Seyfert galaxies and quasars. This, however, poses a serious problem. While the inferred energy balance is plausible, many LINERs clearly do not contain any other independent signatures of an AGN. Aims. Using integral field spectroscopic data from the CALIFA survey, we compare the observed radial surface brightness profiles with what is expected from illumination by an AGN. Methods. Essential for this analysis is a proper extraction of emission lines, especially weak lines, such as Balmer H beta lines, which are superposed on an absorption trough. To accomplish this, we use the GANDALF code, which simultaneously fits the underlying stellar continuum and emission lines. Results. For 48 galaxies with LINER-like emission, we show that the radial emission-line surface brightness profiles are inconsistent with ionisation by a central point-source and hence cannot be due to an AGN alone. Conclusions. The most probable explanation for the excess LINER-like emission is ionisation by evolved stars during the short but very hot and energetic phase known as post-AGB. This leads us to an entirely new interpretation. Post-AGB stars are ubiquitous and their ionising effect should be potentially observable in every galaxy with the gas present and with stars older than ~1 Gyr unless a stronger radiation field from young hot stars or an AGN outshines them. This means that galaxies with LINER-like emission are not a class defined by a property but rather by the absence of a property. It also explains why LINER emission is observed mostly in massive galaxies with old stars and little star formation.
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Spanish National Research Council1, National Autonomous University of Mexico2, National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics and Electronics3, Complutense University of Madrid4, Autonomous University of Madrid5, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina6, University of St Andrews7, University of La Laguna8, Instituto Superior Técnico9, Leibniz Institute for Astrophysics Potsdam10, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic11, Masaryk University12, Max Planck Society13, University of Sydney14, Australian Astronomical Observatory15, University of Porto16
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors presented the largest and most homogeneous catalog of H ii regions and associations compiled so far, consisting of more than 7000 ionized regions, extracted from 306 galaxies observed by the CALIFA survey.
Abstract: We present the largest and most homogeneous catalog of H ii regions and associations compiled so far The catalog comprises more than 7000 ionized regions, extracted from 306 galaxies observed by the CALIFA survey We describe the procedures used to detect, select, and analyze the spectroscopic properties of these ionized regions In the current study we focus on characterizing of the radial gradient of the oxygen abundance in the ionized gas, based on the study of the deprojecteddistribution of H ii regions We found that all galaxies without clear evidence of an interaction present a common gradient in the oxygen abundance, with a characteristic slope of α_O/H = −01 dex/r_e between 03 and 2 disk effective radii (r_e), and a scatter compatible with random fluctuations around this value, when the gradient is normalized to the disk effective radius The slope is independent of morphology, the incidence of bars, absolute magnitude, or mass Only those galaxies with evidence of interactions and/or clear merging systems present a significantly shallower gradient, consistent with previous results The majority of the 94 galaxies with H ii regions detected beyond two disk effective radii present a flattening in the oxygen abundance The flattening is statistically significant We cannot provide a conclusive answer regarding the origin of this flattening However, our results indicate that its origin is most probably related to the secular evolution of galaxies Finally, we find a drop/truncation of the oxygen abundance in the inner regions for 26 of the galaxies All of them are non-interacting, mostly unbarred Sb/Sbc galaxies This feature is associated with a central star-forming ring, which suggests that both features are produced by radial gas flows induced by resonance processes Our result suggests that galaxy disks grow inside-out, with metal enrichment driven by the local star formation history and with a small variation galaxy-by-galaxy At a certain galactocentric distance, the oxygen abundance seems to be correlated well with the stellar mass density and total stellar mass of the galaxies, independently of other properties of the galaxies Other processes, such as radial mixing and inflows/outflows seem to have a limited effect on shaping of the radial distribution of oxygen abundances, although they are not ruled out
474 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors investigate the effect of AGN variability on the observed connection between star formation and black hole accretion in extragalactic surveys, and show that there may be a tight connection between AGN activity and SFR over galaxy evolution timescales, and that the apparent similarities in rest-frame colors, merger rates, and clustering of AGNs compared to inactive galaxies may be due primarily to AGNs variability.
Abstract: We investigate the effect of active galactic nucleus (AGN) variability on the observed connection between star formation and black hole accretion in extragalactic surveys. Recent studies have reported relatively weak correlations between observed AGN luminosities and the properties of AGN hosts, which has been interpreted to imply that there is no direct connection between AGN activity and star formation. However, AGNs may be expected to vary significantly on a wide range of timescales (from hours to Myr) that are far shorter than the typical timescale for star formation (100 Myr). This variability can have important consequences for observed correlations. We present a simple model in which all star-forming galaxies host an AGN when averaged over ~100 Myr timescales, with long-term average AGN accretion rates that are perfectly correlated with the star formation rate (SFR). We show that reasonable prescriptions for AGN variability reproduce the observed weak correlations between SFR and L AGN in typical AGN host galaxies, as well as the general trends in the observed AGN luminosity functions, merger fractions, and measurements of the average AGN luminosity as a function of SFR. These results imply that there may be a tight connection between AGN activity and SFR over galaxy evolution timescales, and that the apparent similarities in rest-frame colors, merger rates, and clustering of AGNs compared to inactive galaxies may be due primarily to AGN variability. The results provide motivation for future deep, wide extragalactic surveys that can measure the distribution of AGN accretion rates as a function of SFR.
375 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors investigate the effect of active galactic nucleus variability on the observed connection between star formation and black hole accretion in extragalactic surveys, and show that the apparent similarities in rest-frame colors, merger rates, and clustering of AGNs compared to "inactive" galaxies may be due primarily to AGN variability.
Abstract: We investigate the effect of active galactic nucleus (AGN) variability on the observed connection between star formation and black hole accretion in extragalactic surveys. Recent studies have reported relatively weak correlations between observed AGN luminosities and the properties of AGN hosts, which has been interpreted to imply that there is no direct connection between AGN activity and star formation. However, AGNs may be expected to vary significantly on a wide range of timescales (from hours to Myr) that are far shorter than the typical timescale for star formation (>~100 Myr). This variability can have important consequences for observed correlations. We present a simple model in which all star-forming galaxies host an AGN when averaged over ~100 Myr timescales, with long-term average AGN accretion rates that are perfectly correlated with the star formation rate (SFR). We show that reasonable prescriptions for AGN variability reproduce the observed weak correlations between SFR and L_AGN in typical AGN host galaxies, as well as the general trends in the observed AGN luminosity functions, merger fractions, and measurements of the average AGN luminosity as a function of SFR. These results imply there may be a tight connection between AGN activity and SFR over galaxy evolution timescales, and that the apparent similarities in rest-frame colors, merger rates, and clustering of AGNs compared to "inactive" galaxies may be due primarily to AGN variability. The results provide motivation for future deep, wide extragalactic surveys that can measure the distribution of AGN accretion rates as a function of SFR.
353 citations
University of Cambridge1, European Southern Observatory2, École normale supérieure de Lyon3, University of Wisconsin-Madison4, University of Kentucky5, New Mexico State University6, Sternberg Astronomical Institute7, University of Antofagasta8, University of Utah9, Institute for the Physics and Mathematics of the Universe10, University of Texas at Austin11, Johns Hopkins University12, Space Telescope Science Institute13, University of La Serena14, University of St Andrews15
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors studied the spatially resolved excitation properties of the ionised gas in a sample of 646 galaxies using integral field spectroscopy data from SDSS-IV MaNGA.
Abstract: We study the spatially resolved excitation properties of the ionised gas in a sample of 646 galaxies using integral field spectroscopy data from SDSS-IV MaNGA. Making use of Baldwin-Philips-Terlevich diagnostic diagrams we demonstrate the ubiquitous presence of extended (kpc scale) low ionisation emission-line regions (LIERs) in both star forming and quiescent galaxies. In star forming galaxies LIER emission can be associated with diffuse ionised gas, most evident as extra-planar emission in edge-on systems. In addition, we identify two main classes of galaxies displaying LIER emission: `central LIER' (cLIER) galaxies, where central LIER emission is spatially extended, but accompanied by star formation at larger galactocentric distances, and `extended LIER' (eLIER) galaxies, where LIER emission is extended throughout the whole galaxy. In eLIER and cLIER galaxies, LIER emission is associated with radially flat, low H$\alpha$ equivalent width of line emission ($
302 citations
University of Kentucky1, University of Tokyo2, Space Telescope Science Institute3, University of Wisconsin-Madison4, University of Pittsburgh5, Johns Hopkins University6, University of Texas at Austin7, University of Washington8, Open University9, University of St Andrews10, University of Portsmouth11, University of Nottingham12, University of Cambridge13, New Mexico State University14, Moscow State University15, University of Chile16, New York University17, University of Utah18, University of Oxford19, Max Planck Society20, European Southern Observatory21, Claude Bernard University Lyon 122, École normale supérieure de Lyon23, University of Iowa24, Princeton University25, Case Western Reserve University26, Tsinghua University27, Chinese Academy of Sciences28, University of Manchester29, National Autonomous University of Mexico30, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory31, University of Victoria32
TL;DR: The MaNGA Survey (Mapping Nearby Galaxies at Apache Point Observatory) as discussed by the authors is one of the core programs in the Sloan Digital Sky Survey IV, which is obtaining integral field spectroscopy for 10,000 nearby galaxies at a spectral resolution of R ∼ 2000 from 3622 to 10354 A.
Abstract: The MaNGA Survey (Mapping Nearby Galaxies at Apache Point Observatory) is one of three core programs in the Sloan Digital Sky Survey IV. It is obtaining integral field spectroscopy for 10,000 nearby galaxies at a spectral resolution of R ∼ 2000 from 3622 to 10354 A. The design of the survey is driven by a set of science requirements on the precision of estimates of the following properties: star formation rate surface density, gas metallicity, stellar population age, metallicity, and abundance ratio, and their gradients; stellar and gas kinematics; and enclosed gravitational mass as a function of radius. We describe how these science requirements set the depth of the observations and dictate sample selection. The majority of targeted galaxies are selected to ensure uniform spatial coverage in units of effective radius (Re) while maximizing spatial resolution. About two-thirds of the sample is covered out to 1.5Re (Primary sample), and one-third of the sample is covered to 2.5Re (Secondary sample). We describe the survey execution with details that would be useful in the design of similar future surveys. We also present statistics on the achieved data quality, specifically the point-spread function, sampling uniformity, spectral resolution, sky subtraction, and flux calibration. For our Primary sample, the median r-band signal-to-noise ratio is ∼70 per 1.4 A pixel for spectra stacked between 1Re and 1.5Re. Measurements of various galaxy properties from the first-year data show that we are meeting or exceeding the defined requirements for the majority of our science goals.
268 citations
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TL;DR: In this paper, the merits of various emission-line intensity ratios for classifying the spectra of extragalactic objects were investigated and it was shown empirically that several combinations of easily-measured lines can be used to separate objects into one of four categories according to the principal excitation mechanism: normal H II regions, planetary nebulae, objects photoionized by a power-law continuum, and objects excited by shock-wave heating.
Abstract: An investigation is made of the merits of various emission-line intensity ratios for classifying the spectra of extragalactic objects. It is shown empirically that several combinations of easily-measured lines can be used to separate objects into one of four categories according to the principal excitation mechanism: normal H II regions, planetary nebulae, objects photoionized by a power-law continuum, and objects excited by shock-wave heating. A two-dimensional quantitative classification scheme is suggested.
4,734 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examined the properties of the host galaxies of 22 623 narrow-line active galactic nuclei (AGN) with 0.02 < z < 0.3 selected from a complete sample of 122 808 galaxies from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey.
Abstract: We examine the properties of the host galaxies of 22 623 narrow-line active galactic nuclei (AGN) with 0.02 < z < 0.3 selected from a complete sample of 122 808 galaxies from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. We focus on the luminosity of the [O III] λ5007 emission line as a tracer of the strength of activity in the nucleus. We study how AGN host properties compare with those of normal galaxies and how they depend on L[O III]. We find that AGN of all luminosities reside almost exclusively in massive galaxies and have distributions of sizes, stellar surface mass densities and concentrations that are similar to those of ordinary early-type galaxies in our sample. The host galaxies of low-luminosity AGN have stellar populations similar to normal early types. The hosts of high-luminosity AGN have much younger mean stellar ages. The young stars are not preferentially located near the nucleus of the galaxy, but are spread out over scales of at least several kiloparsecs. A significant fraction of high-luminosity AGN have strong Hδ absorption-line equivalent widths, indicating that they experienced a burst of star formation in the recent past. We have also examined the stellar populations of the host galaxies of a sample of broad-line AGN. We conclude that there is no significant difference in stellar content between type 2 Seyfert hosts and quasars (QSOs) with the same [O III] luminosity and redshift. This establishes that a young stellar population is a general property of AGN with high [O III] luminosities.
3,781 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a large sample of infrared starburst galaxies using both the PEGASE v2.0 and STARBURST99 codes was used to generate the spectral energy distribution (SED) of the young star clusters.
Abstract: We have modeled a large sample of infrared starburst galaxies using both the PEGASE v2.0 and STARBURST99 codes to generate the spectral energy distribution (SED) of the young star clusters. PEGASE utilizes the Padova group tracks, while STARBURST99 uses the Geneva group tracks, allowing comparison between the two. We used our MAPPINGS III code to compute photoionization models that include a self-consistent treatment of dust physics and chemical depletion. We use the standard optical diagnostic diagrams as indicators of the hardness of the EUV radiation field in these galaxies. These diagnostic diagrams are most sensitive to the spectral index of the ionizing radiation field in the 1-4 ryd region. We find that warm infrared starburst galaxies contain a relatively hard EUV field in this region. The PEGASE ionizing stellar continuum is harder in the 1-4 ryd range than that of STARBURST99. As the spectrum in this regime is dominated by emission from Wolf-Rayet (W-R) stars, this discrepancy is most likely due to the differences in stellar atmosphere models used for the W-R stars. The PEGASE models use the Clegg & Middlemass planetary nebula nuclei (PNN) atmosphere models for the W-R stars, whereas the STARBURST99 models use the Schmutz, Leitherer, & Gruenwald W-R atmosphere models. We believe that the Schmutz et al. atmospheres are more applicable to the starburst galaxies in our sample; however, they do not produce the hard EUV field in the 1-4 ryd region required by our observations. The inclusion of continuum metal blanketing in the models may be one solution. Supernova remnant (SNR) shock modeling shows that the contribution by mechanical energy from SNRs to the photoionization models is 20%. The models presented here are used to derive a new theoretical classification scheme for starbursts and active galactic nucleus (AGN) galaxies based on the optical diagnostic diagrams.
2,462 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors consider viscous rotating accretion flows in which most of the viscously dissipated energy is stored as entropy rather than being radiated, and obtain a family of self-similar solutions where the temperature of the accreting gas is nearly virial and the flow is quasi-spherical.
Abstract: We consider viscous rotating accretion flows in which most of the viscously dissipated energy is stored as entropy rather than being radiated. Such advection-dominated flows may occur when the optical depth is either very small or very large. We obtain a family of self-similar solutions where the temperature of the accreting gas is nearly virial and the flow is quasi-spherical. The gas rotates at much less than the Keplerian angular velocity; therefore, the central stars in such flows will cease to spin up long before they reach the break-up limit. Further, the Bernoulli parameter is positive, implying that advection-dominated flows are susceptible to producing outflows. Convection is likely in many of these flows and, if present, will tend to enhance the above effects. We suggest that advection-dominated accretion may provide an explanation for the slow spin rates of accreting stars and the widespread occurrence of outflows and jets in accreting systems.
2,228 citations