The neurosteroid allopregnanolone protects retinal neurons by effects on autophagy and GABRs/GABAA receptors in rat glaucoma models
TL;DR: It is concluded that AlloP may serve as a potential therapeutic agent for the treatment of glaucoma via diverse mechanisms and induces a protective form of autophagy in this model.
Abstract: In an ex vivo rat glaucoma model using dissected retinas, the neurosteroid allopregnanolone (AlloP) protects retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) via GABR/GABAA receptors. To determine the involvement of ...
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01 Feb 2013
TL;DR: Torin2 as mentioned in this paper is a second generation ATP-competitive inhibitor that is potent and selective for mTOR with a superior pharmacokinetic profile to previous inhibitors, which is associated with strong growth inhibition in vitro.
Abstract: mTOR is a highly conserved serine/threonine protein kinase that serves as a central regulator of cell growth, survival and autophagy. Deregulation of the PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway occurs commonly in cancer and numerous inhibitors targeting the ATP-binding site of these kinases are currently undergoing clinical evaluation. Here we report the characterization of Torin2, a second generation ATP-competitive inhibitor that is potent and selective for mTOR with a superior pharmacokinetic profile to previous inhibitors. Torin2 inhibited mTORC1-dependent T389 phosphorylation on S6K (RPS6KB1) with an EC50 of 250 pM with approximately 800-fold selectivity for cellular mTOR versus PI3K. Torin2 also exhibited potent biochemical and cellular activity against PIKK family kinases including ATM (EC50 28 nM), ATR (EC50 35 nM) and DNA-PK (EC50 118 nM) (PRKDC), the inhibition of which sensitized cells to Irradiation. Similar to the earlier generation compound Torin1 and in contrast to other reported mTOR inhibitors, Torin2 inhibited mTOR kinase and mTORC1 signaling activities in a sustained manner suggestive of a slow dissociation from the kinase. Cancer cell treatment with Torin2 for 24 hours resulted in a prolonged block in negative feedback and consequent T308 phosphorylation on Akt. These effects were associated with strong growth inhibition in vitro. Single agent treatment with Torin2 in vivo did not yield significant efficacy against KRAS-driven lung tumors, but the combination of Torin2 with MEK inhibitor AZD6244 yielded a significant growth inhibition. Taken together, our findings establish Torin2 as a strong candidate for clinical evaluation in a broad number of oncological settings where mTOR signaling has a pathogenic role.
133 citations
TL;DR: In this paper , the authors summarized the mechanisms of interaction between ROS and autophagy and their roles in the pathogenesis of several ocular diseases, including glaucoma, age-related macular degeneration (AMD), diabetic retinopathy (DR), and optic nerve atrophy, which are major causes of blindness.
Abstract: Oxidative stress is mainly caused by intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, which is highly associated with normal physiological homeostasis and the pathogenesis of diseases, particularly ocular diseases. Autophagy is a self-clearance pathway that removes oxidized cellular components and regulates cellular ROS levels. ROS can modulate autophagy activity through transcriptional and posttranslational mechanisms. Autophagy further triggers transcription factor activation and degrades impaired organelles and proteins to eliminate excessive ROS in cells. Thus, autophagy may play an antioxidant role in protecting ocular cells from oxidative stress. Nevertheless, excessive autophagy may cause autophagic cell death. In this review, we summarize the mechanisms of interaction between ROS and autophagy and their roles in the pathogenesis of several ocular diseases, including glaucoma, age-related macular degeneration (AMD), diabetic retinopathy (DR), and optic nerve atrophy, which are major causes of blindness. The autophagy modulators used to treat ocular diseases are further discussed. The findings of the studies reviewed here might shed light on the development and use of autophagy modulators for the future treatment of ocular diseases.
37 citations
TL;DR: In this paper , the authors summarized the mechanisms of interaction between ROS and autophagy and their roles in the pathogenesis of several ocular diseases, including glaucoma, age-related macular degeneration (AMD), diabetic retinopathy (DR), and optic nerve atrophy, which are major causes of blindness.
Abstract: Oxidative stress is mainly caused by intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, which is highly associated with normal physiological homeostasis and the pathogenesis of diseases, particularly ocular diseases. Autophagy is a self-clearance pathway that removes oxidized cellular components and regulates cellular ROS levels. ROS can modulate autophagy activity through transcriptional and posttranslational mechanisms. Autophagy further triggers transcription factor activation and degrades impaired organelles and proteins to eliminate excessive ROS in cells. Thus, autophagy may play an antioxidant role in protecting ocular cells from oxidative stress. Nevertheless, excessive autophagy may cause autophagic cell death. In this review, we summarize the mechanisms of interaction between ROS and autophagy and their roles in the pathogenesis of several ocular diseases, including glaucoma, age-related macular degeneration (AMD), diabetic retinopathy (DR), and optic nerve atrophy, which are major causes of blindness. The autophagy modulators used to treat ocular diseases are further discussed. The findings of the studies reviewed here might shed light on the development and use of autophagy modulators for the future treatment of ocular diseases.
34 citations
TL;DR: The hypothesis is that the diet supplement may be used to counteract the inflammatory processes triggered by glial cell activation, thus leading to spared RGC loss and the preservation of visual dysfunction, and the present compound may be viewed as a potential remedy to be added to the currently approved drug therapies for improving RGC protection.
Abstract: There is indication that nutritional supplements protect retinal cells from degeneration. In a previous study, we demonstrated that dietary supplementation with an association of forskolin, homotaurine, spearmint extract and B vitamins efficiently counteracts retinal dysfunction associated with retinal ganglion cell (RGC) death caused by optic nerve crush. We extended our investigation on the efficacy of dietary supplementation with the use of a mouse model in which RGC degeneration depends as closely as possible on intraocular pressure (IOP) elevation. In this model, injecting the anterior chamber of the eye with methylcellulose (MCE) causes IOP elevation leading to RGC dysfunction. The MCE model was characterized in terms of IOP elevation, retinal dysfunction as determined by electrophysiological recordings, RGC loss as determined by brain-specific homeobox/POU domain protein 3A immunoreactivity and dysregulated levels of inflammatory and apoptotic markers. Except for IOP elevation, dysfunctional retinal parameters were all recovered by dietary supplementation indicating the involvement of non-IOP-related neuroprotective mechanisms of action. Our hypothesis is that the diet supplement may be used to counteract the inflammatory processes triggered by glial cell activation, thus leading to spared RGC loss and the preservation of visual dysfunction. In this respect, the present compound may be viewed as a potential remedy to be added to the currently approved drug therapies for improving RGC protection.
26 citations
13 Dec 2013
TL;DR: This work established a link between the functional status of the lysosome in general to the Rag-MTORC1 signaling axis and autophagy activation, and found that niclosamide, an MTORC 1 inhibitor, was able to inhibit lysoome degradation and increase lysOSomal permeability.
Abstract: Autophagy can be activated via MTORC1 down-regulation by amino acid deprivation and by certain chemicals such as rapamycin, torin, and niclosamide. Lysosome is the degrading machine for autophagy but has also been linked to MTORC1 activation through the Rag/RRAG GTPase pathway. This association raises the question of whether lysosome can be involved in the initiation of autophagy. Toward this end, we found that niclosamide, an MTORC1 inhibitor, was able to inhibit lysosome degradation and increase lysosomal permeability. Niclosamide was ineffective in inhibiting MTORC1 in cells expressing constitutively activated Rag proteins, suggesting that its inhibitory effects were targeted to the Rag-MTORC1 signaling system. This places niclosamide in the same category of bafilomycin A1 and concanamycin A, inhibitors of the vacuolar H+-ATPase, for its dependence on Rag GTPase in suppression of MTORC1. Surprisingly, classical lysosome inhibitors such as chloroquine, E64D, and pepstatin A were also able to inhibit MTORC1 in a Rag-dependent manner. These lysosome inhibitors were able to activate early autophagy events represented by ATG16L1 and ATG12 puncta formation. Our work established a link between the functional status of the lysosome in general to the Rag-MTORC1 signaling axis and autophagy activation. Thus, the lysosome is not only required for autophagic degradation but also affects autophagy activation. Lysosome inhibitors can have a dual effect in suppressing autophagy degradation and in initiating autophagy.
24 citations
References
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TL;DR: The global prevalence of primary open-angle glaucoma (POAG) and primary angle-closure glauComa (PACG) and the number of affected people in 2020 and 2040 are examined, disproportionally affecting people residing in Asia and Africa.
4,318 citations
TL;DR: In this review, the process of autophagy is summarized, and the role of autophileagy is discussed in a process-based manner.
Abstract: Autophagy is an intracellular degradation system that delivers cytoplasmic constituents to the lysosome. Despite its simplicity, recent progress has demonstrated that autophagy plays a wide variety of physiological and pathophysiological roles, which are sometimes complex. Autophagy consists of several sequential steps--sequestration, transport to lysosomes, degradation, and utilization of degradation products--and each step may exert different function. In this review, the process of autophagy is summarized, and the role of autophagy is discussed in a process-based manner.
3,527 citations
"The neurosteroid allopregnanolone p..." refers background in this paper
...The phagophore sequesters cytosolic materials and organelles to form a double-membrane vesicle called an autophagosome (AP) [6]....
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TL;DR: In this article, the polyubiquitin-binding protein p62/SQSTM1 has been shown to be involved in linking polyUBiquitinated protein aggregates to the autophagy machinery.
Abstract: Autophagic degradation of ubiquitinated protein aggregates is important for cell survival, but it is not known how the autophagic machinery recognizes such aggregates. In this study, we report that polymerization of the polyubiquitin-binding protein p62/SQSTM1 yields protein bodies that either reside free in the cytosol and nucleus or occur within autophagosomes and lysosomal structures. Inhibition of autophagy led to an increase in the size and number of p62 bodies and p62 protein levels. The autophagic marker light chain 3 (LC3) colocalized with p62 bodies and coimmunoprecipitated with p62, suggesting that these two proteins participate in the same complexes. The depletion of p62 inhibited recruitment of LC3 to autophagosomes under starvation conditions. Strikingly, p62 and LC3 formed a shell surrounding aggregates of mutant huntingtin. Reduction of p62 protein levels or interference with p62 function significantly increased cell death that was induced by the expression of mutant huntingtin. We suggest that p62 may, via LC3, be involved in linking polyubiquitinated protein aggregates to the autophagy machinery.
2,708 citations
"The neurosteroid allopregnanolone p..." refers background in this paper
...SQSTM1 (sequestosome 1) is a protein that is incorporated into completed APs and accumulates when autophagy is impaired [22,23]....
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...Levels of SQSTM1 inversely correlate with autophagy activity, and when autophagy is inhibited, SQSTM1 accumulates [22,23]....
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TL;DR: In both analyses low intraocular pressure is associated with reduced progression of visual field defect, supporting evidence from earlier studies of a protective role for low intracular pressure in visual field deterioration.
2,395 citations
"The neurosteroid allopregnanolone p..." refers background in this paper
...Increased intraocular pressure (IOP) is a major risk factor for glaucoma [3]....
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TL;DR: The mechanistic basis of selective autophagy in mammalian cells discussing the degradation of misfolded proteins, p62 bodies, aggresomes, mitochondria and invading bacteria is reviewed and the emerging picture of selectivity affecting the regulation of cell signaling with consequences for oxidative stress responses, tumorigenesis and innate immunity is addressed.
Abstract: Mounting evidence suggests that autophagy is a more selective process than originally anticipated. The discovery and characterization of autophagic adapters, like p62 and NBR1, has provided mechanistic insight into this process. p62 and NBR1 are both selectively degraded by autophagy and able to act as cargo receptors for degradation of ubiquitinated substrates. A direct interaction between these autophagic adapters and the autophagosomal marker protein LC3, mediated by a so-called LIR (LC3-interacting region) motif, their inherent ability to polymerize or aggregate as well as their ability to specifically recognize substrates are required for efficient selective autophagy. These three required features of autophagic cargo receptors are evolutionarily conserved and also employed in the yeast cytoplasm-to-vacuole targeting (Cvt) pathway and in the degradation of P granules in C. elegans. Here, we review the mechanistic basis of selective autophagy in mammalian cells discussing the degradation of misfolded proteins, p62 bodies, aggresomes, mitochondria and invading bacteria. The emerging picture of selective autophagy affecting the regulation of cell signaling with consequences for oxidative stress responses, tumorigenesis and innate immunity is also addressed.
1,534 citations
"The neurosteroid allopregnanolone p..." refers background in this paper
...Under pathological conditions, there is a constitutively high level of SQSTM1, which can lead to the accumulation of damaged mitochondria and subsequent ROS production [29]....
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