The Power of Feedback
TL;DR: This paper provided a conceptual analysis of feedback and reviewed the evidence related to its impact on learning and achievement, and suggested ways in which feedback can be used to enhance its effectiveness in classrooms.
Abstract: Feedback is one of the most powerful influences on learning and achievement, but this impact can be either positive or negative. Its power is frequently mentioned in articles about learning and teaching, but surprisingly few recent studies have systematically investigated its meaning. This article provides a conceptual analysis of feedback and reviews the evidence related to its impact on learning and achievement. This evidence shows that although feedback is among the major influences, the type of feedback and the way it is given can be differentially effective. A model of feedback is then proposed that identifies the particular properties and circumstances that make it effective, and some typically thorny issues are discussed, including the timing of feedback and the effects of positive and negative feedback. Finally, this analysis is used to suggest ways in which feedback can be used to enhance its effectiveness in classrooms.
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TL;DR: The authors describe the second wave of research, which has involved the development of online measures of self-regulatory processes and motivational feelings or beliefs regarding learning in authentic contexts, including computer traces, think-aloud protocols, diaries of studying, direct observation, and microanalyses.
Abstract: The topic of how students become self-regulated as learners has attracted researchers for decades. Initial attempts to measure self-regulated learning (SRL) using questionnaires and interviews were successful in demonstrating significant predictions of students’ academic outcomes. The present article describes the second wave of research, which has involved the development of online measures of self-regulatory processes and motivational feelings or beliefs regarding learning in authentic contexts. These innovative methods include computer traces, think-aloud protocols, diaries of studying, direct observation, and microanalyses. Although still in the formative stage of development, these online measures are providing valuable new information regarding the causal impact of SRL processes as well as raising new questions for future study.
2,771 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors propose a framework for defining and delimiting formative assessment within broader theories of pedagogy, which can also unify the diverse set of practices which have been described as formative.
Abstract: Whilst many definitions of formative assessment have been offered, there is no clear rationale to define and delimit it within broader theories of pedagogy. This paper aims to offer such a rationale, within a framework which can also unify the diverse set of practices which have been described as formative. The analysis is used to relate formative assessment both to other pedagogic initiatives, notably cognitive acceleration and dynamic assessment, and to some of the existing literature on models of self-regulated learning and on classroom discourse. This framework should indicate potentially fruitful lines for further enquiry, whilst at the same time opening up new ways of helping teachers to implement formative practices more effectively.
1,748 citations
TL;DR: Results suggest games show higher learning gains than simulations and virtual worlds, and for simulation studies, elaborate explanation type feedback is more suitable for declarative tasks whereas knowledge of correct response is more appropriate for procedural tasks.
Abstract: The purpose of this meta-analysis is to examine overall effect as well as the impact of selected instructional design principles in the context of virtual reality technology-based instruction (i.e. games, simulation, virtual worlds) in K-12 or higher education settings. A total of 13 studies (N?=?3081) in the category of games, 29 studies (N?=?2553) in the category of games, and 27 studies (N?=?2798) in the category of virtual worlds were meta-analyzed. The key inclusion criteria were that the study came from K-12 or higher education settings, used experimental or quasi-experimental research designs, and used a learning outcome measure to evaluate the effects of the virtual reality-based instruction.Results suggest games (FEM?=?0.77; REM?=?0.51), simulations (FEM?=?0.38; REM?=?0.41), and virtual worlds (FEM?=?0.36; REM?=?0.41) were effective in improving learning outcome gains. The homogeneity analysis of the effect sizes was statistically significant, indicating that the studies were different from each other. Therefore, we conducted moderator analysis using 13 variables used to code the studies. Key findings included that: games show higher learning gains than simulations and virtual worlds. For simulation studies, elaborate explanation type feedback is more suitable for declarative tasks whereas knowledge of correct response is more appropriate for procedural tasks. Students performance is enhanced when they conduct the game play individually than in a group. In addition, we found an inverse relationship between number of treatment sessions learning gains for games.With regards to the virtual world, we found that if students were repeatedly measured it deteriorates their learning outcome gains. We discuss results to highlight the importance of considering instructional design principles when designing virtual reality-based instruction. A comprehensive review of virtual reality-based instruction research.Analysis of the moderation effects of design features in a virtual environment.Using an advance statistical technique of meta-analysis to study the effects.Virtual reality environment is effective for teaching in K-12 and higher education.Results can be used by instructional designers to design the virtual environments.
1,040 citations
15 May 2011
TL;DR: Self-Regulation of learning and performance has been studied extensively in the literature as mentioned in this paper, with a focus on the role of self-regulation in the development of learners' skills and abilities.
Abstract: Contents Historical, Contemporary, and Future Perspectives on Self-Regulated Learning and Performance Dale H. Schunk and Jeffrey A. Greene Section I. Basic Domains of Self-Regulation of Learning and Performance Social Cognitive Theoretical Perspective of Self-Regulation Ellen L. Usher and Dale H. Schunk Cognition and Metacognition Within Self-Regulated Learning Philip H. Winne Developmental Trajectories of Skills and Abilities Relevant for Self-Regulation of Learning and Performance Rick H. Hoyle and Amy L. Dent Motivation and Affect in Self-Regulated Learning: Does Metacognition Play a Role? Anastasia Efklides, Bennett L. Schwartz, and Victoria Brown Self-Regulation, Co-Regulation and Shared Regulation in Collaborative Learning Environments Allyson Hadwin, Sanna Jarvela, and Mariel Miller Section II. Self-Regulation of Learning and Performance in Context Metacognitive Pedagogies in Mathematics Classrooms: From Kindergarten to College and Beyond Zemira R. Mevarech, Lieven Verschaffel, and Erik De Corte Self-Regulated Learning in Reading Keith W. Thiede and Anique B. H. de Bruin Self-Regulation and Writing Steve Graham, Karen R. Harris, Charles MacArthur, and Tanya Santangelo The Self-Regulation of Learning and Conceptual Change in Science: Research, Theory, and Educational Applications Gale M. Sinatra and Gita Taasoobshirazi Using Technology-Rich Environments to Foster Self-Regulated Learning in the Social Studies Eric G. Poitras and Susanne P. Lajoie Self-Regulated Learning in Music Practice and Performance Gary E. McPherson, Peter Miksza, and Paul Evans Self-Regulation in Athletes: A Social Cognitive Perspective Anastasia Kitsantas, Maria Kavussanu, Deborah B. Corbatto, and Pepijn K. C. van de Pol Self-Regulation: An Integral Part of Standards-Based Education Marie C. White and Maria K. DiBenedetto Teachers as Agents in Promoting Students' SRL and Performance: Applications for Teachers' Dual-Role Training Program Bracha Kramarski Section III. Technology and Self-Regulation of Learning and Performance Emerging Classroom Technology: Using Self-Regulation Principles as a Guide for Effective Implementation Daniel C. Moos Understanding and Reasoning About Real-Time Cognitive, Affective, and Metacognitive Processes to Foster Self-Regulation With Advanced Learning Technologies Roger Azevedo, Michelle Taub, and Nicholas V. Mudrick The Role of Self-Regulated Learning in Digital Games John L. Nietfeld Self-Regulation of Learning and Performance in Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning Environments Peter Reimann and Maria Bannert Section IV. Methodology and Assessment of Self-Regulation of Learning and Performance Validity and the Use of Self-Report Questionnaires to Assess Self-Regulated Learning Christopher A. Wolters and Sungjun Won Capturing and Modeling Self-Regulated Learning Using Think-Aloud Protocols Jeffrey A. Greene, Victor M. Deekens, Dana Z. Copeland, and Seung Yu Assessing Self-Regulated Learning Using Microanalytic Methods Timothy J. Cleary and Gregory L. Callan Advancing Research and Practice About Self-Regulated Learning: The Promise of In-Depth Case Study Methodologies Deborah L. Butler and Sylvie C. Cartier Examining the Cyclical, Loosely Sequenced, and Contingent Features of Self-Regulated Learning: Trace Data and Their Analysis Matthew L. Bernacki Data Mining Methods for Assessing Self-Regulated Learning Gautam Biswas, Ryan S. Baker, and Luc Paquette Section V. Individual and Group Differences in Self-Regulation of Learning and Performance 26. Calibration of Performance and Academic Delay of Gratification: Individual and Group Differences in Self-Regulation of Learning Peggy P. Chen and Hefer Bembenutty 27. Academic Help Seeking as a Self-Regulated Learning Strategy: Current Issues, Future Directions Stuart A. Karabenick and Eleftheria N. Gonida 28. The Three Faces of Epistemic Thinking in Self-Regulated Learning Krista R. Muis and Cara Singh 29. Advances in Understanding Young Children's Self-Regulation of Learning Nancy E. Perry, Lynda R. Hutchinson, Nikki Yee, and Elina Maatta 30. Self-Regulation: Implications for Individuals With Special Needs Linda H. Mason and Robert Reid 31. Culture and Self-Regulation in Educational Contexts Dennis M. McInerney and Ronnel B. King
981 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors develop and analyse two models of feedback: the first is based on the origins of the term in the disciplines of engineering and biology, and the second draws on ideas of sustainable assessment.
Abstract: Student feedback is a contentious and confusing issue throughout higher education institutions. This paper develops and analyses two models of feedback: the first is based on the origins of the term in the disciplines of engineering and biology. It positions teachers as the drivers of feedback. The second draws on ideas of sustainable assessment. This positions learners as having a key role in driving learning, and thus generating and soliciting their own feedback. It suggests that the second model equips students beyond the immediate task and does not lead to false expectations that courses cannot deliver. It identifies the importance of curriculum design in creating opportunities for students to develop the capabilities to operate as judges of their own learning.
913 citations
References
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01 Feb 2013
TL;DR: The Handbook of Educational Psychology, Second Edition as discussed by the authors provides an indispensable reference volume for scholars, teacher educators, in-service practitioners, policy makers and the academic libraries serving these audiences.
Abstract: Sponsored by Division 15 of APA, the second edition of this groundbreaking book has been expanded to 41 chapters that provide unparalleled coverage of this far-ranging field. Internationally recognized scholars contribute up-to-date reviews and critical syntheses of the following areas: foundations and the future of educational psychology, learners’ development, individual differences, cognition, motivation, content area teaching, socio-cultural perspectives on teaching and learning, teachers and teaching, instructional design, teacher assessment, and modern perspectives on research methodologies, data, and data analysis. New chapters cover topics such as adult development, self-regulation, changes in knowledge and beliefs, and writing. Expanded treatment has been given to cognition, motivation, and new methodologies for gathering and analyzing data. The Handbook of Educational Psychology, Second Edition provides an indispensable reference volume for scholars, teacher educators, in-service practitioners, policy makers and the academic libraries serving these audiences. It is also appropriate for graduate level courses devoted to the study of educational psychology.
2,715 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examined the question of how affect arises and what affect indicates from a feedback-based view-point on self-regulation using the analogy of action control as the attempt to diminish distance to a goal, and proposed a second feedback system that senses and regulates the rate at which the action-guiding system is functioning.
Abstract: The question of how affect arises and what affect indicates is examined from a feedback-based view-point on self-regulation. Using the analogy of action control as the attempt to diminish distance to a goal, a second feedback system is postulated that senses and regulates the rate at which the action-guiding system is functioning
2,660 citations
TL;DR: The basic construct of control theory is presented—the discrepancy-reducing feedback loop—and certain of its implications for theory in three separate areas of human psychology are discussed, demonstrating the breadth of its applicability.
Abstract: Control theory provides a model of self-regulati on that we believe is useful in the analysis of human behavior. As an illustration of the breadth of its applicability, we present the basic construct of control theory—the discrepancy-reducing feedback loop—and discuss certain of its implications for theory in three separate areas of human psychology. In personality-s ocial, clinical, and health psychology, the construct proves to fit well with known phenomena and with the theories most recently developed to account for the phenomena. Moreover, in each case control theory appears to make a distinct and unique contribution to the state of the area. We conclude by noting the integrative potential that is suggested by these illustrations and by noting some issues that should receive attention in future work. Cybernetic or control theory is a general approach to the understanding of self-regulating systems. Its central ideas have been around for a long time (see, for example, Cannon's 1929, 1932, discussion of homeostatic physiological mechanisms), but its birth as a distinct body of thought is usually traced to the publication of Wiener's (1948) book, Cybernetics: Control and communication in the animal and the machine. Since then, control theory (in various forms) has had a major impact on areas of work as diverse as engineering (e.g., Dransfield, 1968; Ogata, 1970), applied mathematics (e.g.,
2,292 citations
TL;DR: Garg et al. as discussed by the authors argued that ego's cognitive biases, egocentricity, beneffectance, and cognitive conservatism, are similar to those of a totalitarian information-control system.
Abstract: This article argues that (a) ego, or self, is an organization of knowledge, (b) ego is characterized by cognitive biases strikingly analogous to totalitarian information-control strategies, and (c) these totalitarian-ego biases junction to preserve organization in cognitive structures. Ego's cognitive biases are egocentricity (self as the focus of knowledge), "beneffectance" (perception of responsibility for desired, but not undesired, outcomes), and cognitive conservatism (resistance to cognitive change). In addition to being pervasively evident in recent studies of normal human cognition, these three biases are found in actively functioning, higher level organizations of knowledge, perhaps best exemplified by theoretical paradigms in science. The thesis that egocentricity, beneffectance, and conservatism act to preserve knowledge organizations leads to the proposal of an intrapsychic analog of genetic evolution, which in turn provides an alternative to prevalent motivational and informational interpretations of cognitive biases. The ego rejects the unbearable idea together with its associated affect and behaves as if the idea had never occurred to the person at all. (Freud, 1894/1959, p. 72) Alike with the individual and the group, the past is being continually re-made, reconstructed in the interests of the present. (Bartlett, 1932, p. 309) As historians of our own lives we seem to be, on the one hand, very inattentive and, on the other, revisionists who will justify the present by changing the past. (Wixon & Laird, 1976, p. 384) "Who controls the past," ran the Party slogan, "controls the future: who controls the present controls the past." (Orwell, 1949, p. 32) What follows is a portrait of self (or ego—the terms are used interchangeably) constructed by interweaving strands drawn from several areas of recent research. The most striking features of the portrait are three cognitive biases, which correspond disturbingly to thought control and propaganda devices that are considered to be defining characteristics of a totalitarian political system. The epithet for ego, Vol. 35, No. 7, 603-618 totalitarian, was chosen only with substantial reservation because of this label's pejorative connotations. Interestingly, characteristics that seem undesirable in a political system can nonetheless serve adaptively in a personal organization of knowledge. The conception of ego as an organization of knowledge synthesizes influences from three sources —empirical, literary, and theoretical. First, recent empirical demonstrations of self-relevant cognitive biases suggest that the biases play a role in some fundamental aspect of personality. Second, George Orwell's 1984 suggests the analogy between ego's biases and totalitarian information control. Last, the theories of Loevinger (197,6) and Epstein (1973) suggest the additional analogy between ego's organization and theoretical organizations of scientific knowledge. The first part of this article surveys evidence indicating that ego's cognitive biases are pervasive in and characteristic of normal personalities. The second part sets forth arguments for interpreting the biases as manifestations of an effectively functioning organization of knowledge. The last section develops an explanation for the totalitarian-ego biases by analyzing their role in maintaining cognitive organization and in supporting effective behavior. /. Three Cognitive Biases: Fabrication and Revision of Personal History Ego, as an organization of knowledge (a conclusion to ,be developed later), serves the functions of observing (perceiving) and recording (remembering) personal experience; it can be characterized, therefore, as a personal historian. Many findings Acknowledgments are given at the end of the article. Requests for reprints should be sent to Anthony G. Greenwald, Department of Psychology, Ohio State University, 404C West 17th Avenue, Columbus, Ohio 43210. AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGIST • JULY 1980 • 603 Copyright 1980 by the American Psychological Association, Inc. 0003-066X/80/3507-0603$00.75 from recent research in personality, cognitive, and social psychology demonstrate that ego fabricates and revises history, thereby engaging in practices not ordinarily admired in historians. These lapsesin personal scholarship, or cognitive biases, are discussed below in three categories: egocentricity (self perceived as more central to events than it is)', "beneffectance" (self perceived as selectively responsible for desired, but not undesired, outcomes), and conservatism (resistance to cognitive
1,936 citations
TL;DR: Five experiments reported in which the goal either to perform well or to cooperate was activated, without the awareness of participants, through a priming manipulation demonstrated that action guided by nonconsciously activated goals effectively guide action, enabling adaptation to ongoing situational demands.
Abstract: It is proposed that goals can be activated outside of awareness and then operate nonconsciously to guide self-regulation effectively (J. A. Bargh, 1990). Five experiments are reported in which the goal either to perform well or to cooperate was activated, without the awareness of participants, through a priming manipulation. In Experiment 1 priming of the goal to perform well caused participants to perform comparatively better on an intellectual task. In Experiment 2 priming of the goal to cooperate caused participants to replenish a commonly held resource more readily. Experiment 3 used a dissociation paradigm to rule out perceptual-construal alternative explanations. Experiments 4 and 5 demonstrated that action guided by nonconsciously activated goals manifests two classic content-free features of the pursuit of consciously held goals. Nonconsciously activated goals effectively guide action, enabling adaptation to ongoing situational demands.
1,782 citations