The Power of Feedback
TL;DR: This paper provided a conceptual analysis of feedback and reviewed the evidence related to its impact on learning and achievement, and suggested ways in which feedback can be used to enhance its effectiveness in classrooms.
Abstract: Feedback is one of the most powerful influences on learning and achievement, but this impact can be either positive or negative. Its power is frequently mentioned in articles about learning and teaching, but surprisingly few recent studies have systematically investigated its meaning. This article provides a conceptual analysis of feedback and reviews the evidence related to its impact on learning and achievement. This evidence shows that although feedback is among the major influences, the type of feedback and the way it is given can be differentially effective. A model of feedback is then proposed that identifies the particular properties and circumstances that make it effective, and some typically thorny issues are discussed, including the timing of feedback and the effects of positive and negative feedback. Finally, this analysis is used to suggest ways in which feedback can be used to enhance its effectiveness in classrooms.
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TL;DR: The authors describe the second wave of research, which has involved the development of online measures of self-regulatory processes and motivational feelings or beliefs regarding learning in authentic contexts, including computer traces, think-aloud protocols, diaries of studying, direct observation, and microanalyses.
Abstract: The topic of how students become self-regulated as learners has attracted researchers for decades. Initial attempts to measure self-regulated learning (SRL) using questionnaires and interviews were successful in demonstrating significant predictions of students’ academic outcomes. The present article describes the second wave of research, which has involved the development of online measures of self-regulatory processes and motivational feelings or beliefs regarding learning in authentic contexts. These innovative methods include computer traces, think-aloud protocols, diaries of studying, direct observation, and microanalyses. Although still in the formative stage of development, these online measures are providing valuable new information regarding the causal impact of SRL processes as well as raising new questions for future study.
2,771 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors propose a framework for defining and delimiting formative assessment within broader theories of pedagogy, which can also unify the diverse set of practices which have been described as formative.
Abstract: Whilst many definitions of formative assessment have been offered, there is no clear rationale to define and delimit it within broader theories of pedagogy. This paper aims to offer such a rationale, within a framework which can also unify the diverse set of practices which have been described as formative. The analysis is used to relate formative assessment both to other pedagogic initiatives, notably cognitive acceleration and dynamic assessment, and to some of the existing literature on models of self-regulated learning and on classroom discourse. This framework should indicate potentially fruitful lines for further enquiry, whilst at the same time opening up new ways of helping teachers to implement formative practices more effectively.
1,748 citations
TL;DR: Results suggest games show higher learning gains than simulations and virtual worlds, and for simulation studies, elaborate explanation type feedback is more suitable for declarative tasks whereas knowledge of correct response is more appropriate for procedural tasks.
Abstract: The purpose of this meta-analysis is to examine overall effect as well as the impact of selected instructional design principles in the context of virtual reality technology-based instruction (i.e. games, simulation, virtual worlds) in K-12 or higher education settings. A total of 13 studies (N?=?3081) in the category of games, 29 studies (N?=?2553) in the category of games, and 27 studies (N?=?2798) in the category of virtual worlds were meta-analyzed. The key inclusion criteria were that the study came from K-12 or higher education settings, used experimental or quasi-experimental research designs, and used a learning outcome measure to evaluate the effects of the virtual reality-based instruction.Results suggest games (FEM?=?0.77; REM?=?0.51), simulations (FEM?=?0.38; REM?=?0.41), and virtual worlds (FEM?=?0.36; REM?=?0.41) were effective in improving learning outcome gains. The homogeneity analysis of the effect sizes was statistically significant, indicating that the studies were different from each other. Therefore, we conducted moderator analysis using 13 variables used to code the studies. Key findings included that: games show higher learning gains than simulations and virtual worlds. For simulation studies, elaborate explanation type feedback is more suitable for declarative tasks whereas knowledge of correct response is more appropriate for procedural tasks. Students performance is enhanced when they conduct the game play individually than in a group. In addition, we found an inverse relationship between number of treatment sessions learning gains for games.With regards to the virtual world, we found that if students were repeatedly measured it deteriorates their learning outcome gains. We discuss results to highlight the importance of considering instructional design principles when designing virtual reality-based instruction. A comprehensive review of virtual reality-based instruction research.Analysis of the moderation effects of design features in a virtual environment.Using an advance statistical technique of meta-analysis to study the effects.Virtual reality environment is effective for teaching in K-12 and higher education.Results can be used by instructional designers to design the virtual environments.
1,040 citations
15 May 2011
TL;DR: Self-Regulation of learning and performance has been studied extensively in the literature as mentioned in this paper, with a focus on the role of self-regulation in the development of learners' skills and abilities.
Abstract: Contents Historical, Contemporary, and Future Perspectives on Self-Regulated Learning and Performance Dale H. Schunk and Jeffrey A. Greene Section I. Basic Domains of Self-Regulation of Learning and Performance Social Cognitive Theoretical Perspective of Self-Regulation Ellen L. Usher and Dale H. Schunk Cognition and Metacognition Within Self-Regulated Learning Philip H. Winne Developmental Trajectories of Skills and Abilities Relevant for Self-Regulation of Learning and Performance Rick H. Hoyle and Amy L. Dent Motivation and Affect in Self-Regulated Learning: Does Metacognition Play a Role? Anastasia Efklides, Bennett L. Schwartz, and Victoria Brown Self-Regulation, Co-Regulation and Shared Regulation in Collaborative Learning Environments Allyson Hadwin, Sanna Jarvela, and Mariel Miller Section II. Self-Regulation of Learning and Performance in Context Metacognitive Pedagogies in Mathematics Classrooms: From Kindergarten to College and Beyond Zemira R. Mevarech, Lieven Verschaffel, and Erik De Corte Self-Regulated Learning in Reading Keith W. Thiede and Anique B. H. de Bruin Self-Regulation and Writing Steve Graham, Karen R. Harris, Charles MacArthur, and Tanya Santangelo The Self-Regulation of Learning and Conceptual Change in Science: Research, Theory, and Educational Applications Gale M. Sinatra and Gita Taasoobshirazi Using Technology-Rich Environments to Foster Self-Regulated Learning in the Social Studies Eric G. Poitras and Susanne P. Lajoie Self-Regulated Learning in Music Practice and Performance Gary E. McPherson, Peter Miksza, and Paul Evans Self-Regulation in Athletes: A Social Cognitive Perspective Anastasia Kitsantas, Maria Kavussanu, Deborah B. Corbatto, and Pepijn K. C. van de Pol Self-Regulation: An Integral Part of Standards-Based Education Marie C. White and Maria K. DiBenedetto Teachers as Agents in Promoting Students' SRL and Performance: Applications for Teachers' Dual-Role Training Program Bracha Kramarski Section III. Technology and Self-Regulation of Learning and Performance Emerging Classroom Technology: Using Self-Regulation Principles as a Guide for Effective Implementation Daniel C. Moos Understanding and Reasoning About Real-Time Cognitive, Affective, and Metacognitive Processes to Foster Self-Regulation With Advanced Learning Technologies Roger Azevedo, Michelle Taub, and Nicholas V. Mudrick The Role of Self-Regulated Learning in Digital Games John L. Nietfeld Self-Regulation of Learning and Performance in Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning Environments Peter Reimann and Maria Bannert Section IV. Methodology and Assessment of Self-Regulation of Learning and Performance Validity and the Use of Self-Report Questionnaires to Assess Self-Regulated Learning Christopher A. Wolters and Sungjun Won Capturing and Modeling Self-Regulated Learning Using Think-Aloud Protocols Jeffrey A. Greene, Victor M. Deekens, Dana Z. Copeland, and Seung Yu Assessing Self-Regulated Learning Using Microanalytic Methods Timothy J. Cleary and Gregory L. Callan Advancing Research and Practice About Self-Regulated Learning: The Promise of In-Depth Case Study Methodologies Deborah L. Butler and Sylvie C. Cartier Examining the Cyclical, Loosely Sequenced, and Contingent Features of Self-Regulated Learning: Trace Data and Their Analysis Matthew L. Bernacki Data Mining Methods for Assessing Self-Regulated Learning Gautam Biswas, Ryan S. Baker, and Luc Paquette Section V. Individual and Group Differences in Self-Regulation of Learning and Performance 26. Calibration of Performance and Academic Delay of Gratification: Individual and Group Differences in Self-Regulation of Learning Peggy P. Chen and Hefer Bembenutty 27. Academic Help Seeking as a Self-Regulated Learning Strategy: Current Issues, Future Directions Stuart A. Karabenick and Eleftheria N. Gonida 28. The Three Faces of Epistemic Thinking in Self-Regulated Learning Krista R. Muis and Cara Singh 29. Advances in Understanding Young Children's Self-Regulation of Learning Nancy E. Perry, Lynda R. Hutchinson, Nikki Yee, and Elina Maatta 30. Self-Regulation: Implications for Individuals With Special Needs Linda H. Mason and Robert Reid 31. Culture and Self-Regulation in Educational Contexts Dennis M. McInerney and Ronnel B. King
981 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors develop and analyse two models of feedback: the first is based on the origins of the term in the disciplines of engineering and biology, and the second draws on ideas of sustainable assessment.
Abstract: Student feedback is a contentious and confusing issue throughout higher education institutions. This paper develops and analyses two models of feedback: the first is based on the origins of the term in the disciplines of engineering and biology. It positions teachers as the drivers of feedback. The second draws on ideas of sustainable assessment. This positions learners as having a key role in driving learning, and thus generating and soliciting their own feedback. It suggests that the second model equips students beyond the immediate task and does not lead to false expectations that courses cannot deliver. It identifies the importance of curriculum design in creating opportunities for students to develop the capabilities to operate as judges of their own learning.
913 citations
References
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TL;DR: The authors found that the impact of information about performance on subsequent intrinsic motivation depends significantly on the degree to which this information promotes a task-involved or an ego-involved motivational orientation, and that ego involved attributions were highest after receiving of grades and praise.
Abstract: I designed this study to test the hypothesis that the impact of information about performance on subsequent intrinsic motivation depends significantly on the degree to which this information promotes a task-involved or an ego-involved motivational orientation. A total of 200 fifth- and sixth-grade students with high or low school achievement were given interesting divergent thinking tasks in each of three sessions. Individual comments, numerical grades, standardized praise, or no feedback were received after Sessions 1 and 2. Results confirmed that at Session 3 (posttest), interest, performance, and attributions of effort, outcome, and the impact of evaluation to taskinvolved causes were highest at both levels of achievement after receipt of comments. Egoinvolved attributions were highest after receipt of grades and praise. These findings support the conceptualization of the feedback conditions as task involving (comments), ego involving (grades and praise), or neither (no feedback). The similar impact of grades and praise would not be predicted by cognitive evaluation theory. I discuss the importance of distinguishing between taskand ego-involved orientations in the study of continuing motivation. In several recent articles, Nicholls (1979, 1983) distinguishes among three main kinds of task motivation, according to the primary goal or focus of behavior characteristic of each. In a conceptualization similar to that suggested by deCharms (1968), Nicholls defines task involvement as a motivational state in which an activity is perceived as inherently satisfying and in which the individual is concerned primarily with assessing and developing individual mastery in relation to task demands or prior performance. Thus, greater effort is expected to yield greater competence. In ego involvement, on the other hand, attention is focused primarily on assessing ability, which is perceived as a stable dimension of individual differences. Because such capacity can only be evaluated against the performance of others, ego involvement should promote a self-worth orientation in which one's main concern is to demonstrate high ability or mask low ability relative to others. Finally, extrinsic motivation is assumed to operate when an activity is undertaken as a means to some other end. Attention is thus focused primarily on attaining the desired goal, rather than on demonstrating either individual mastery or normative ability. Nicholls (1984) has been concerned mainly with exploring the implications of task-involved and ego-involved motivation for immediate achievement behavior, whereas extrinsic motivation has been studied mainly within the context of research on the effects of incentives on subsequent interest (Lepper & Greene, 1978). In the present study, I attempt to bridge these traditions by suggesting that continuing interest
703 citations
TL;DR: A meta-analysis of findings on feedback timing and human verbal learning showed that a variety of results have been obtained in 53 separate studies of the topic as mentioned in this paper, but the variation in results seems to be related systematically to features of the studies.
Abstract: A meta-analysis of findings on feedback timing and human verbal learning showed that a variety of results have been obtained in 53 separate studies of the topic. Applied studies using actual classroom quizzes and real learning materials have usually found immediate feedback to be more effective than delayed. Experimental studies of acquisition of test content have usually produced the opposite result. Laboratory studies of list learning have produced a variety of results, but the variation in results seems to be related systematically to features of the studies.
690 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the behavior of decision makers to the dynamics of an industry or the macroeconomy is studied. But, despite the success of experimental techniques in the domain of the individual and small group, there has been comparatively little work relating the behaviour of decision-makers to the dynamic dynamics of larger organizations such as an industry.
671 citations
TL;DR: This article investigated motivational influences on help-seeking behavior in math classrooms, focusing on early adolescents' perceptions of the benefits and threats associated with such behavior, and found that perceived threats and benefits partially mediated the effects of task-focused goals on adaptive help seeking.
Abstract: The present study investigated motivational influences on help-seeking behavior in math classrooms, focusing on early adolescents' perceptions of the benefits and threats associated with such behavior. Seventh and 8th graders (N= 203) responded to a questionnaire on perceptions of social and cognitive competence, achievement goals, attitudes, and avoidance of and adaptive help-seeking behavior in math class. Both threats and benefits were important influences on avoidance of help-seeking behavior, whereas only benefits predicted adaptive help seeking. Findings indicated that perceived threats and benefits partially mediated the effects of relative ability goals, task-focused goals, extrinsic goals, and perceptions of cognitive competence on avoidance of help seeking. Perceived benefits partially mediated the effects of task-focused goals on adaptive help seeking. Social competence had an indirect effect on avoidance of help seeking. Results illustrate the importance of linking cognitive, motivational, and social characteristics of students to provide a fuller understanding of adolescent help seeking in math.
627 citations
TL;DR: The authors provide an integration of the work done on feedback processes, especially as these results apply to written lessons and the design of instructional materials and make no attempt to cover the more task specific literature dealing with motor learning, simple concept acquisition, or paired-associates, since excellent reviews already exist in these areas.
Abstract: When students respond to an instructional communication, telling them whether or not their answer is correct increases the amount of material remembered on a later test (Anderson, Kulhavy, & Andre, 1971; Gilman, 1969; Meyer, 1960). Unfortunately, the mechanisms responsible for such facilitation are frequently misunderstood, and one can find numerous examples in both research and instructional development where feedback is used inappropriately, neutralizing any positive effects it might have on student performance. The main purpose of this paper is to provide an integration of the work done on feedback processes, especially as these results apply to written lessons and the design of instructional materials. Finally, this discussion makes no attempt to cover the more task specific literature dealing with motor learning, simple concept acquisition, or paired-associates, since excellent reviews already exist in these areas (Adams, 1968; Ammons, 1956; Bilodeau, 1966; Bourne, 1966; Renner, 1964).
580 citations