The primacy model : A new model of immediate serial recall
TL;DR: A new model of immediate serial recall is presented: the primacy model, which produces accurate simulations of the effects of word length, list length, and phonological similarity.
Abstract: A new model of immediate serial recall is presented: the primacy model. The primacy model stores order information by means of the assumption that the strength of activation of successive list items decreases across list position to form a primacy gradient. Ordered recall is supported by a repeated cycle of operations involving a noisy choice of the most active item followed by suppression of the chosen item. Word-length and list-length effects are attributed to a decay process that occurs both during input, when effective rehearsal is prevented, and during output. The phonological similarity effect is attributed to a second stage of processing at which phonological confusions occur. The primacy model produces accurate simulations of the effects of word length, list length, and phonological similarity.
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TL;DR: The meaning of the terms "method" and "method bias" are explored and whether method biases influence all measures equally are examined, and the evidence of the effects that method biases have on individual measures and on the covariation between different constructs is reviewed.
Abstract: Despite the concern that has been expressed about potential method biases, and the pervasiveness of research settings with the potential to produce them, there is disagreement about whether they really are a problem for researchers in the behavioral sciences. Therefore, the purpose of this review is to explore the current state of knowledge about method biases. First, we explore the meaning of the terms “method” and “method bias” and then we examine whether method biases influence all measures equally. Next, we review the evidence of the effects that method biases have on individual measures and on the covariation between different constructs. Following this, we evaluate the procedural and statistical remedies that have been used to control method biases and provide recommendations for minimizing method bias.
8,719 citations
TL;DR: The revised model differs from the old principally in focussing attention on the processes of integrating information, rather than on the isolation of the subsystems, which provides a better basis for tackling the more complex aspects of executive control in working memory.
6,350 citations
TL;DR: The concept of working memory proposes that a dedicated system maintains and stores information in the short term, and that this system underlies human thought processes.
Abstract: The concept of working memory proposes that a dedicated system maintains and stores information in the short term, and that this system underlies human thought processes. Current views of working memory involve a central executive and two storage systems: the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketchpad. Although this basic model was first proposed 30 years ago, it has continued to develop and to stimulate research and debate. The model and the most recent results are reviewed in this article.
4,556 citations
TL;DR: An account of the origins and development of the multicomponent approach to working memory is presented, making a distinction between the overall theoretical framework, which has remained relatively stable, and the attempts to build more specific models within this framework.
Abstract: I present an account of the origins and development of the multicomponent approach to working memory, making a distinction between the overall theoretical framework, which has remained relatively stable, and the attempts to build more specific models within this framework. I follow this with a brief discussion of alternative models and their relationship to the framework. I conclude with speculations on further developments and a comment on the value of attempting to apply models and theories beyond the laboratory studies on which they are typically based.
2,841 citations
Cites background from "The primacy model : A new model of ..."
...A second approach is typified by the primacy hypothesis of Page & Norris (1998), which assumes a limited capacity of excitation that is shared among the sequence of items....
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TL;DR: The results indicate that the basic modular structure of working memory is present from 6 years of age and possibly earlier, with each component undergoing sizable expansion in functional capacity throughout the early and middle school years to adolescence.
Abstract: The structure of working memory and its development across the childhood years were investigated in children 4-15 years of age. The children were given multiple assessments of each component of the A. D. Baddeley and G. Hitch (1974) working memory model. Broadly similar linear functions characterized performance on all measures as a function of age. From 6 years onward, a model consisting of 3 distinct but correlated factors corresponding to the working memory model provided a good fit to the data. The results indicate that the basic modular structure of working memory is present from 6 years of age and possibly earlier, with each component undergoing sizable expansion in functional capacity throughout the early and middle school years to adolescence.
1,492 citations
Cites background or methods from "The primacy model : A new model of ..."
...…stimuli is widely accepted as the classic (and only reliable) means of assessing the capacity of the phonological loop, and these different categories of stimulus are widely used in theoretical explorations of this short-term memory system loop (e.g., Burgess & Hitch, 1998; Page & Norris, 1998)....
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...These measures were selected because serial recall of verbal stimuli is widely accepted as the classic (and only reliable) means of assessing the capacity of the phonological loop, and these different categories of stimulus are widely used in theoretical explorations of this short-term memory system loop (e.g., Burgess & Hitch, 1998; Page & Norris, 1998 )....
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6,046 citations
"The primacy model : A new model of ..." refers background in this paper
...For instance, Levelt (1989) discussed in detail a two-stage view of lexical access for output....
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Book•
01 Jan 1989TL;DR: In this article, Willem "Pim" Levelt, Director of the Max-Planck Institute for Psycholinguistik, accomplishes the formidable task of covering the entire process of speech production from constraints on conversational appropriateness to articulation and self-monitoring of speech.
Abstract: In Speaking, Willem "Pim" Levelt, Director of the Max-Planck-Institut fur Psycholinguistik, accomplishes the formidable task of covering the entire process of speech production, from constraints on conversational appropriateness to articulation and self-monitoring of speech. Speaking is unique in its balanced coverage of all major aspects of the production of speech, in the completeness of its treatment of the entire speech process, and in its strategy of exemplifying rather than formalizing theoretical issues.
5,497 citations
2,844 citations
2,785 citations
01 Jan 1980
TL;DR: The authors investigated the possibility that assessment of confidence is biased by attempts to justify one's chosen answer and disregarding evidence contradicting it, and found that only the listing of contradicting reasons improved the appropriateness of confidence.
Abstract: People are often overconfident in evaluating the correctness of their knowledge. The present studies investigated the possibility that assessment of confidence is biased by attempts to justify one's chosen answer. These attempts include selectively focusing on evidence supporting the chosen answer and disregarding evidence contradicting it. Experiment 1 presented subjects with two-alternative questions and required them to list reasons for and against each of the alternatives prior to choosing an answer and assessing the probability of its being correct. This procedure produced a marked improvement in the appropriateness of confidence judgments. Experiment 2 simplified the manipulation by asking subjects first to choose an answer and then to list (a) one reason supporting that choice, (b) one reason contradicting it, or (c) one reason supporting and one reason contradicting. Only the listing of contradicting reasons improved the appropriateness of confidence. Correlational analyses of the data of Experiment 1 strongly suggested that the confidence depends on the amount and strength of the evidence supporting the answer chosen.
2,721 citations