The qualitative content analysis process

doi:10.1111/J.1365-2648.2007.04569.X

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The qualitative content analysis process

Journal Article•DOI•

The qualitative content analysis process

Satu Elo¹, Helvi Kyngäs¹•Institutions (1)

University of Oulu¹

01 Apr 2008-Journal of Advanced Nursing (J Adv Nurs)-Vol. 62, Iss: 1, pp 107-115

TL;DR: Inductive content analysis is used in cases where there are no previous studies dealing with the phenomenon or when it is fragmented, and a deductive approach is useful if the general aim was to test a previous theory in a different situation or to compare categories at different time periods.

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Abstract: Aim This paper is a description of inductive and deductive content analysis. Background Content analysis is a method that may be used with either qualitative or quantitative data and in an inductive or deductive way. Qualitative content analysis is commonly used in nursing studies but little has been published on the analysis process and many research books generally only provide a short description of this method. Discussion When using content analysis, the aim was to build a model to describe the phenomenon in a conceptual form. Both inductive and deductive analysis processes are represented as three main phases: preparation, organizing and reporting. The preparation phase is similar in both approaches. The concepts are derived from the data in inductive content analysis. Deductive content analysis is used when the structure of analysis is operationalized on the basis of previous knowledge. Conclusion Inductive content analysis is used in cases where there are no previous studies dealing with the phenomenon or when it is fragmented. A deductive approach is useful if the general aim was to test a previous theory in a different situation or to compare categories at different time periods.

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Journal Article•DOI•

Content analysis and thematic analysis: Implications for conducting a qualitative descriptive study

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Mojtaba Vaismoradi¹, Mojtaba Vaismoradi², Hannele Turunen³, Terese Bondas³, Terese Bondas² - Show less +1 more•Institutions (3)

Swansea University¹, University of Nordland², University of Eastern Finland³

01 Sep 2013-Nursing & Health Sciences

TL;DR: It is concluded that in spite of many similarities between the approaches, including cutting across data and searching for patterns and themes, their main difference lies in the opportunity for quantification of data.

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Abstract: Qualitative content analysis and thematic analysis are two commonly used approaches in data analysis of nursing research, but boundaries between the two have not been clearly specified. In other words, they are being used interchangeably and it seems difficult for the researcher to choose between them. In this respect, this paper describes and discusses the boundaries between qualitative content analysis and thematic analysis and presents implications to improve the consistency between the purpose of related studies and the method of data analyses. This is a discussion paper, comprising an analytical overview and discussion of the definitions, aims, philosophical background, data gathering, and analysis of content analysis and thematic analysis, and addressing their methodological subtleties. It is concluded that in spite of many similarities between the approaches, including cutting across data and searching for patterns and themes, their main difference lies in the opportunity for quantification of data. It means that measuring the frequency of different categories and themes is possible in content analysis with caution as a proxy for significance.

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5,509 citations

Cites background or methods from "The qualitative content analysis pr..."

...The process of data analysis in content analysis according to Elo and Kyngäs (2008), and in thematic analysis according to Braun and Clarke (2006) is shown in Table 1....
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...Data corpus, data item, data extract, code, and theme in thematic analysis are equivalent in content analysis to the unit of analysis, meaning unit, condensed meaning unit, code, and category/theme, respectively (Graneheim & Lundman, 2004; Braun & Clarke, 2006; Elo & Kyngäs, 2008)....
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...A deductive approach is useful if the general aim of thematic analysis and content analysis is to test a previous theory in a different situation, or to compare categories at different periods (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005; Elo & Kyngäs, 2008)....
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...Content analysis is well-suited to analyse the multifaceted, important, and sensitive phenomena of nursing (Elo & Kyngäs, 2008; Vaismoradi et al., 2011)....
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...Nevertheless, a scarcity of information about the process of data analysis in nursing literature has resulted in a diversity of perspectives on how the approaches are used in research practice (Braun & Clarke, 2006; Elo & Kyngäs, 2008)....
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Journal Article•DOI•

Qualitative Content Analysis: A Focus on Trustworthiness

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Satu Elo¹, Maria Kääriäinen², Maria Kääriäinen¹, Outi Kanste, Tarja Pölkki¹, Kati Utriainen¹, Helvi Kyngäs¹, Helvi Kyngäs² - Show less +4 more•Institutions (2)

University of Oulu¹, Oulu University Hospital²

11 Feb 2014-SAGE Open

TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined the trustworthiness of content analysis in nursing science studies and found that content analysis is commonly used for analyzing qualitative data, however, few articles have examined the use of QCA in nursing studies.

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Abstract: Qualitative content analysis is commonly used for analyzing qualitative data. However, few articles have examined the trustworthiness of its use in nursing science studies. The trustworthiness of q...

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5,401 citations

Cites background or methods from "The qualitative content analysis pr..."

...In nursing science, the number of methods concerning content analysis published in books and scientific articles has increased considerably over the last decade (Elo & Kyngäs, 2008; Harwood & Garry, 2003; Hsieh & Shannon, 2005; Neuendorf, 2002; Schreier, 2012)....
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...…for successful content analysis is that data can be reduced to concepts that describe the research phenomenon (Cavanagh, 1997; Elo & Kyngäs, 2008; Hsieh & Shannon, 2005) by creating categories, concepts, a model, conceptual system, or conceptual map (Elo & Kyngäs, 2008; Morgan, 1993; Weber, 1990)....
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...This is particularly important if the researcher decides to analyze the latent content (noticing silence, sighs, laughter, posture etc.) in addition to manifest content (Catanzaro, 1988; Robson, 1993) as it may result in over interpretation (Elo & Kyngäs, 2008)....
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...In most studies where content analysis is used, the collected data are unstructured (Elo & Kyngäs, 2008; Neuendorf, 2002; Sandelowski, 1995b), gathered by methods such as interviews, observations, diaries, other written documents, or a combination of different methods....
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...In the inductive approach, the organization phase includes open coding, creating categories, and abstraction (Elo & Kyngäs, 2008)....
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Journal Article•DOI•

The Circular Economy – A new sustainability paradigm?

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Martin Geissdoerfer¹, Martin Geissdoerfer², Paulo Savaget¹, Nancy Bocken², Nancy Bocken¹, Erik Jan Hultink² - Show less +2 more•Institutions (2)

University of Cambridge¹, Delft University of Technology²

01 Feb 2017-Journal of Cleaner Production

TL;DR: This article conducted an extensive literature review, employing bibliometric analysis and snowballing techniques to investigate the state of the art in the field and synthesise the similarities, differences and relationships between both terms.

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3,508 citations

Cites methods from "The qualitative content analysis pr..."

...This was used as a method of analysing written communication (Elo & Kyngäs, 2008), with the purpose of providing a condensed description by examining text to reveal patterns....
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Journal Article•DOI•

How to plan and perform a qualitative study using content analysis

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Mariette Bengtsson¹•Institutions (1)

Malmö University¹

01 Jan 2016-NursingPlus Open

TL;DR: This description of qualitative content analysis offers one approach that shows how the general principles of the method can be used and four distinct main stages are described: the decontextualisation, the recontextualization, the categorization, and the compilation.

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2,368 citations

Journal Article•DOI•

Nursing Research—Principles and Methods

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Jeanne P. Sweeney

01 Oct 1991-Gastroenterology Nursing

1,669 citations

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References

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Journal Article•DOI•

Three Approaches to Qualitative Content Analysis

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Hsiu-Fang Hsieh¹, Sarah E. Shannon²•Institutions (2)

Fooyin University¹, University of Washington²

01 Nov 2005-Qualitative Health Research

TL;DR: The authors delineate analytic procedures specific to each approach and techniques addressing trustworthiness with hypothetical examples drawn from the area of end-of-life care.

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Abstract: Content analysis is a widely used qualitative research technique. Rather than being a single method, current applications of content analysis show three distinct approaches: conventional, directed, or summative. All three approaches are used to interpret meaning from the content of text data and, hence, adhere to the naturalistic paradigm. The major differences among the approaches are coding schemes, origins of codes, and threats to trustworthiness. In conventional content analysis, coding categories are derived directly from the text data. With a directed approach, analysis starts with a theory or relevant research findings as guidance for initial codes. A summative content analysis involves counting and comparisons, usually of keywords or content, followed by the interpretation of the underlying context. The authors delineate analytic procedures specific to each approach and techniques addressing trustworthiness with hypothetical examples drawn from the area of end-of-life care.

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31,398 citations

Journal Article•DOI•

Qualitative Evaluation And Research Methods

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Michael Quinn Patton

24 Jan 1992-The Modern Language Journal

TL;DR: The Nature of Qualitative Inquiry Theoretical Orientations Particularly Appropriate Qualitative Applications as mentioned in this paper, and Qualitative Interviewing: Qualitative Analysis and Interpretation Enhancing the quality and credibility of qualitative analysis and interpretation.

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Abstract: PART ONE: CONCEPTUAL ISSUES IN THE USE OF QUALITATIVE METHODS The Nature of Qualitative Inquiry Strategic Themes in Qualitative Methods Variety in Qualitative Inquiry Theoretical Orientations Particularly Appropriate Qualitative Applications PART TWO: QUALITATIVE DESIGNS AND DATA COLLECTION Designing Qualitative Studies Fieldwork Strategies and Observation Methods Qualitative Interviewing PART THREE: ANALYSIS, INTERPRETATION, AND REPORTING Qualitative Analysis and Interpretation Enhancing the Quality and Credibility of Qualitative Analysis

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31,305 citations

"The qualitative content analysis pr..." refers background in this paper

...Authentic citations could also be used to increase the trustworthiness of the research and to point out to readers from where or from what kinds of original data categories are formulated (Patton 1990, Sandelowski 1993)....
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...If the matrix is Sub-category Generic category Main category Temperature variation Cold symptoms Heat symptoms Threats of the northern physical environment Darkness Snow & ice Decrease of mood Tiredness Weakness Apathy Difficulties to move outside Snow-blindness Snowbound Risk of fall Figure 2 An example of the abstraction process....
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...Journal compilation 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd 111 structured, only aspects that fit the matrix of analysis are chosen from the data (Patton 1990, Sandelowski 1993, 1995)....
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...In addition, when the saturation of the data is incomplete, it may be difficult to link data items to each other (Patton 1990, Cavanagh 1997)....
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...…category Main category Temperature variation Cold symptoms Heat symptoms Threats of the northern physical environment Darkness Snow & ice Decrease of mood Tiredness Weakness Apathy Difficulties to move outside Snow-blindness Snowbound Risk of fall Figure 2 An example of the abstraction process....
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Book•

Content analysis: an introduction to its methodology

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Klaus Krippendorff

01 Jan 1980

TL;DR: History Conceptual Foundations Uses and Kinds of Inference The Logic of Content Analysis Designs Unitizing Sampling Recording Data Languages Constructs for Inference Analytical Techniques The Use of Computers Reliability Validity A Practical Guide

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Abstract: History Conceptual Foundations Uses and Kinds of Inference The Logic of Content Analysis Designs Unitizing Sampling Recording Data Languages Constructs for Inference Analytical Techniques The Use of Computers Reliability Validity A Practical Guide

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25,749 citations

"The qualitative content analysis pr..." refers background or methods in this paper

...Content analysis as a research method is a systematic and objective means of describing and quantifying phenomena (Krippendorff 1980, Downe-Wamboldt 1992, Sandelowski 1995)....
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...It is assumed that when classified into the same categories, words, phrases and the like share the same meaning (Cavanagh 1997)....
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...Today, content analysis has a long history of use in communication, journalism, sociology, psychology and business, and during the last few decades its use has shown steady growth (Neundorf 2002)....
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...The truth is that this method is as easy or as difficult as the researcher determines it to be (Neundorf 2002)....
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...Content analysis is a research method for making replicable and valid inferences from data to their context, with the purpose of providing knowledge, new insights, a representation of facts and a practical guide to action (Krippendorff 1980)....
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Journal Article•

Qualitative evaluation and research methods

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Michael Quinn Patton

01 Jan 1990-International Journal of Information Management

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22,714 citations

Book•

Qualitative Data Analysis

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Miles Matthew B, Huberman A. Michael

01 Jan 1994

TL;DR: In the field of qualitative data analysis, qualitative data is extremely varied in nature. It includes virtually any information that can be captured that is not numerical in nature as mentioned in this paper, which is a generalization of direct observation.

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Abstract: Qualitative data is extremely varied in nature. It includes virtually any information that can be captured that is not numerical in nature. Here are some of the major categories or types: In-Depth Interviews In-Depth Interviews include both individual interviews (e.g., one-on-one) as well as "group" interviews (including focus groups). The data can be recorded in a wide variety of ways including stenography, audio recording, video recording or written notes. In depth interviews differ from direct observation primarily in the nature of the interaction. In interviews it is assumed that there is a questioner and one or more interviewees. The purpose of the interview is to probe the ideas of the interviewees about the phenomenon of interest. Direct Observation Direct observation is meant very broadly here. It differs from interviewing in that the observer does not actively query the respondent. It can include everything from field research where one lives in another context or culture for a period of time to photographs that illustrate some aspect of the phenomenon. The data can be recorded in many of the same ways as interviews (stenography, audio, video) and through pictures, photos or drawings (e.g., those courtroom drawings of witnesses are a form of direct observation). Written Documents Usually this refers to existing documents (as opposed transcripts of interviews conducted for the research). It can include newspapers, magazines, books, websites, memos, transcripts of conversations, annual reports, and so on. Usually written documents are analyzed with some form of content analysis. sumber : http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/qualdata.php

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18,082 citations