The ''Reading the Mind in the Eyes'' Test Revised Version: A Study with Normal Adults, and Adults with Asperger Syndrome or High-functioning Autism
01 Feb 2001-Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (Cambridge University Press)-Vol. 42, Iss: 2, pp 241-251
TL;DR: The Revised Eyes Test has improved power to detect subtle individual differences in social sensitivity and was inversely correlated with the Autism Spectrum Quotient (the AQ), a measure of autistic traits in adults of normal intelligence.
Abstract: In 1997 in this Journal we published the ‘‘Reading the Mind in the Eyes’’ Test, as a measure of adult ‘‘mentalising’’. Whilst that test succeeded in discriminating a group of adults with Asperger syndrome (AS) or high-functioning autism (HFA) from controls, it suered from several psychometric problems. In this paper these limitations are rectified by revising the test. The Revised Eyes Test was administered to a group of adults with AS or HFA (N fl 15) and again discriminated these from a large number of normal controls (N fl 239) drawn from dierent samples. In both the clinical and control groups the Eyes Test was inversely correlated with the Autism Spectrum Quotient (the AQ), a measure of autistic traits in adults of normal intelligence. The Revised Eyes Test has improved power to detect subtle individual dierences in social sensitivity.
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TL;DR: A psychometric methodology for quantifying a factor termed “collective intelligence” (c), which reflects how well groups perform on a similarly diverse set of group problem-solving tasks, and finds converging evidence of a general collective intelligence factor that explains a group’s performance on a wide variety of tasks.
Abstract: Psychologists have repeatedly shown that a single statistical factor—often called “general intelligence”— emerges from the correlations among people's performance on a wide variety of cognitive tasks. But no one has systematically examined whether a similar kind of “collective intelligence” exists for groups of people. In two studies with 699 individuals, working in groups of two to five, we find converging evidence of a general collective intelligence factor that explains a group's performance on a wide variety of tasks. This “c factor” is not strongly correlated with the average or maximum individual intelligence of group members but is correlated with the average social sensitivity of group members, the equality in distribution of conversational turn-taking, and the proportion of females in the group. As research, management, and many other kinds of tasks are increasingly accomplished by groups—both those working face-to-face and "virtually"(1‐3)—it is becoming even more important to understand the determinants of group
1,941 citations
TL;DR: Overall, social cognition was more strongly associated with community functioning than neurocognition, with the strongest associations being between theory of mind and functional outcomes.
1,519 citations
Cites background from "The ''Reading the Mind in the Eyes'..."
...Theory of mind (reported by 5 studies) Hinting Task (Concoran et al., 1995) Number of correct identified hints Tom Picture Stories (Bruene, 2003) Number of correct sequenced cartoon story pictures, correct identified mental states Tom Vignettes (Concoran, 2001) Number of correct identified belief states Faux Pas Task (Stone et al., 1998) Number of correct identified faux pas and empathy Eyes Test (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001) Number of correct chosen emotions fitting eye expression Implicit Mentalizing Task (Stewart et al., 2009) Number of mental and emotional state references/number speech phrases 11....
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...…2001) Number of correct identified belief states Faux Pas Task (Stone et al., 1998) Number of correct identified faux pas and empathy Eyes Test (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001) Number of correct chosen emotions fitting eye expression Implicit Mentalizing Task (Stewart et al., 2009) Number of mental…...
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...The “Reading the Mind in the Eyes” Test revised version: a study with normal adults, and adults avioral Reviews 35 (2011) 573–588 585 with Asperger syndrome or high functioning autism....
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TL;DR: OXT and AVP are emerging as targets for novel treatment approaches — particularly in synergistic combination with psychotherapy — for mental disorders characterized by social dysfunction, such as autism, social anxiety disorder, borderline personality disorder and schizophrenia.
Abstract: The neuropeptides oxytocin (OXT) and arginine vasopressin (AVP) are evolutionarily highly conserved mediators in the regulation of complex social cognition and behaviour. Recent studies have investigated the effects of OXT and AVP on human social interaction, the genetic mechanisms of inter-individual variation in social neuropeptide signalling and the actions of OXT and AVP in the human brain as revealed by neuroimaging. These data have advanced our understanding of the mechanisms by which these neuropeptides contribute to human social behaviour. OXT and AVP are emerging as targets for novel treatment approaches — particularly in synergistic combination with psychotherapy — for mental disorders characterized by social dysfunction, such as autism, social anxiety disorder, borderline personality disorder and schizophrenia.
1,436 citations
Cites methods from "The ''Reading the Mind in the Eyes'..."
...One study used the Reading the Mind in the Eyes test , which has been developed to assess the social cognitive abilities of adults with AS...
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TL;DR: A physiological cause for the mentalizing dysfunction in autism is suggested: a bottleneck in the interaction between higher order and lower order perceptual processes.
Abstract: Ten able adults with autism or Asperger syndrome and 10 normal volunteers were PET scanned while watching animated sequences. The animations depicted two triangles moving about on a screen in three different conditions: moving randomly, moving in a goal-directed fashion (chasing, fighting), and moving interactively with implied intentions (coaxing, tricking). The last condition frequently elicited descriptions in terms of mental states that viewers attributed to the triangles (mentalizing). The autism group gave fewer and less accurate descriptions of these latter animations, but equally accurate descriptions of the other animations compared with controls. While viewing animations that elicited mentalizing, in contrast to randomly moving shapes, the normal group showed increased activation in a previously identified mentalizing network (medial prefrontal cortex, superior temporal sulcus at the temporo-parietal junction and temporal poles). The autism group showed less activation than the normal group in all these regions. However, one additional region, extrastriate cortex, which was highly active when watching animations that elicited mentalizing, showed the same amount of increased activation in both groups. In the autism group this extrastriate region showed reduced functional connectivity with the superior temporal sulcus at the temporo-parietal junction, an area associated with the processing of biological motion as well as with mentalizing. This finding suggests a physiological cause for the mentalizing dysfunction in autism: a bottleneck in the interaction between higher order and lower order perceptual processes.
1,309 citations
Cites background or methods from "The ''Reading the Mind in the Eyes'..."
...acquiring the skill and are prone to errors on more advanced tests of ToM (HappeÂ, 1994; Klin, 2000; Baron-Cohen et al., 2001; Roeyers et al., 2001)....
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...This theory was ®rst tested by Baron-Cohen et al. (1985). Reviews of recent experimental studies indicate that the original ®ndings have been replicated, and that this area of research has become a very active branch of cognitive neuroscience (Baron-Cohen et al....
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...…on standard laboratory tests of false belief attribution can be perfect, they experience long developmental delays when ãGuarantors of Brain 2002 acquiring the skill and are prone to errors on more advanced tests of ToM (HappeÂ, 1994; Klin, 2000; Baron-Cohen et al., 2001; Roeyers et al., 2001)....
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TL;DR: The hypothesis that emotional empathic abilities (involving the mirror neuron system) are distinct from those related to cognitive empathy and that the two depend on separate anatomical substrates is tested.
Abstract: Recent evidence suggests that there are two possible systems for empathy: a basic emotional contagion system and a more advanced cognitive perspective-taking system. However, it is not clear whether these two systems are part of a single interacting empathy system or whether they are independent. Additionally, the neuroanatomical bases of these systems are largely unknown. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that emotional empathic abilities (involving the mirror neuron system) are distinct from those related to cognitive empathy and that the two depend on separate anatomical substrates. Subjects with lesions in the ventromedial prefrontal (VM) or inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) cortices and two control groups were assessed with measures of empathy that incorporate both cognitive and affective dimensions. The findings reveal a remarkable behavioural and anatomic double dissociation between deficits in cognitive empathy (VM) and emotional empathy (IFG). Furthermore, precise anatomical mapping of lesions revealed Brodmann area 44 to be critical for emotional empathy while areas 11 and 10 were found necessary for cognitive empathy. These findings are consistent with these cortices being different in terms of synaptic hierarchy and phylogenetic age. The pattern of empathy deficits among patients with VM and IFG lesions represents a first direct evidence of a double dissociation between emotional and cognitive empathy using the lesion method.
1,290 citations
Additional excerpts
...ing 13 basic as well as complex emotions (Ekman and Freisen, 1976; Baron-Cohen et al., 2001): happy, sad, afraid, surprised, distressed, disgusted, angry, interested, worried, confident, fanta-...
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References
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TL;DR: This paper showed an adult chimpanzee a series of videotaped scenes of a human actor struggling with a variety of problems, some of which were simple, such as bananas vertically or horizontally out of reach, behind a box, and so forth; others were more complex, involving an actor unable to extricate himself from a locked cage, shivering because of a malfunctioning heater, or unable to play a phonograph because it was unplugged.
Abstract: An individual has a theory of mind if he imputes mental states to himself and others. A system of inferences of this kind is properly viewed as a theory because such states are not directly observable, and the system can be used to make predictions about the behavior of others. As to the mental states the chimpanzee may infer, consider those inferred by our own species, for example, purpose or intention, as well as knowledge, belief, thinking, doubt, guessing, pretending, liking, and so forth. To determine whether or not the chimpanzee infers states of this kind, we showed an adult chimpanzee a series of videotaped scenes of a human actor struggling with a variety of problems. Some problems were simple, involving inaccessible food – bananas vertically or horizontally out of reach, behind a box, and so forth – as in the original Kohler problems; others were more complex, involving an actor unable to extricate himself from a locked cage, shivering because of a malfunctioning heater, or unable to play a phonograph because it was unplugged. With each videotape the chimpanzee was given several photographs, one a solution to the problem, such as a stick for the inaccessible bananas, a key for the locked up actor, a lit wick for the malfunctioning heater. The chimpanzee's consistent choice of the correct photographs can be understood by assuming that the animal recognized the videotape as representing a problem, understood the actor's purpose, and chose alternatives compatible with that purpose.
5,979 citations
TL;DR: A travelling salesman found himself spending the night at home with his wife when one of his trips was unexpectedly cancelled, and he leapt out from the bed, ran across the room and jumped out the window.
5,176 citations
"The ''Reading the Mind in the Eyes'..." refers background in this paper
...There is a wealth of basic-level social cognitive tests for use with young children (Flavell, Green, & Flavell, 1986; Flavell, Shipstead, & Croft, 1978; Wellman, 1990; Wimmer & Perner, 1983)....
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TL;DR: The Autism-Spectrum Quotient is a valuable instrument for rapidly quantifying where any given individual is situated on the continuum from autism to normality, and its potential for screening for autism spectrum conditions in adults of normal intelligence remains to be fully explored.
Abstract: Currently there are no brief, self-administered instruments for measuring the degree to which an adult with normal intelligence has the traits associated with the autistic spectrum. In this paper, we report on a new instrument to assess this: the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ). Individuals score in the range 0-50. Four groups of subjects were assessed: Group 1: 58 adults with Asperger syndrome (AS) or high-functioning autism (HFA); Group 2: 174 randomly selected controls. Group 3: 840 students in Cambridge University; and Group 4: 16 winners of the UK Mathematics Olympiad. The adults with AS/HFA had a mean AQ score of 35.8 (SD = 6.5), significantly higher than Group 2 controls (M = 16.4, SD = 6.3). 80% of the adults with AS/HFA scored 32+, versus 2% of controls. Among the controls, men scored slightly but significantly higher than women. No women scored extremely highly (AQ score 34+) whereas 4% of men did so. Twice as many men (40%) as women (21%) scored at intermediate levels (AQ score 20+). Among the AS/HFA group, male and female scores did not differ significantly. The students in Cambridge University did not differ from the randomly selected control group, but scientists (including mathematicians) scored significantly higher than both humanities and social sciences students, confirming an earlier study that autistic conditions are associated with scientific skills. Within the sciences, mathematicians scored highest. This was replicated in Group 4, the Mathematics Olympiad winners scoring significantly higher than the male Cambridge humanities students. 6% of the student sample scored 32+ on the AQ. On interview, 11 out of 11 of these met three or more DSM-IV criteria for AS/HFA, and all were studying sciences/mathematics, and 7 of the 11 met threshold on these criteria. Test-retest and interrater reliability of the AQ was good. The AQ is thus a valuable instrument for rapidly quantifying where any given individual is situated on the continuum from autism to normality. Its potential for screening for autism spectrum conditions in adults of normal intelligence remains to be fully explored.
4,988 citations
TL;DR: Evidence is provided that members of a preliterate culture who had minimal exposure to literate cultures would associate the same emotion concepts with the same facial behaviors as do members of Western and Eastern literates.
Abstract: This study addresses the question of whether any facial expressions of emotion are universal. Recent studies showing that members of literate cultures associated the same emotion concepts with the same facial behaviors could not demonstrate that at least some facial expressions of emotion are universal; the cultures compared had all been exposed to some of the same mass media presentations of facial expression, and these may have taught the people in each culture to recognize the unique facial expressions of other cultures. To show that members of a preliterate culture who had minimal exposure to literate cultures would associate the same emotion concepts with the same facial behaviors as do members of Western and Eastern literate cultures, data were gathered in New Guinea by telling subjects a story, showing them a set of three faces, and asking them to select the face which showed the emotion appropriate to the story. The results provide evidence in support of the hypothesis that the association between particular facial muscular patterns and discrete emotions is universal.
4,265 citations
"The ''Reading the Mind in the Eyes'..." refers background in this paper
...They are basic because they are recognised universally ; because they can be recognised purely as emotions, without the need to attribute a belief to the person; and because they are recognised even by very young normally developing children (Ekman & Friesen, 1971, Harris, 1991; Walker, 1982)....
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Book•
24 Feb 1995TL;DR: The four steps autism and mindblindness how brains read minds the language of the eyes mindreading - back to the future was discussed in evolutionary psychology and social chess mindreading as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: Mindblindness and mindreading evolutionary psychology and social chess mindreading - nature's choice developing mindreading - the four steps autism and mindblindness how brains read minds the language of the eyes mindreading - back to the future.
4,255 citations