The role of learning in shark behaviour
TL;DR: The role of learning in behaviour is well known for many animal taxa, including teleost fishes, insects, birds and mammals as discussed by the authors, however, its importance to sharks in everyday behavioural processes has rarely been considered.
Abstract: The role of learning in behaviour is well known for many animal taxa, including teleost fishes, insects, birds and mammals. However, its importance to sharks in everyday behavioural processes has rarely been considered. Almost 50 years ago the first learning experiments on sharks were conducted; our first section discusses these studies and places them in a framework of associative and non-associative learning. These experiments showed that sharks were capable of different forms of learning, such as operant and classical conditioning and habituation. Sharks could learn associations as rapidly as other vertebrates and also remember training regimes for several months. However, much of this experimental evidence was based on small sample sizes and few shark orders, such as Carcharhiniformes and Orectobliformes, leaving large gaps in our knowledge of the general learning capabilities of other shark orders. We also examine recent research that has tested for, or inferred learning in behavioural processes. This section reveals that sharks, like teleost fishes use learning to improve prey search and capture to potentially navigate and orientate in their home range and recognize conspecifics, heterospecifics and mates. Learning is also discussed in relation to ecotourism and fisheries. Findings indicated that these activities may lead to conditioning of sharks and that considerable effort should go into investigating what impact this could have on the shark species involved. Finally, we discuss the importance of combining laboratory experiments with field studies, the use of new experimental techniques, the role of model species and research priorities for future work.
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TL;DR: The observed grouping patterns not only resulted from passive aggregations for specific resources, but rather the communities developed from an active choice of individuals as a sign of sociability, suggesting that a stable grouping strategy may confer substantial benefits in this marine predator.
164 citations
TL;DR: This is the first satellite telemetry study and movement analysis to explicitly examine the long-range migrations and habitat utilization of tiger sharks originating in the Bahamas and Florida, two areas that differ significantly with regards to the presence of provisioning ecotourism.
Abstract: Summary 1. There has been considerable debate over the past decade with respect to wildlife provisioning, especially resultant behavioural changes that may impact the ecological function of an apex predator. The controversy is exemplified by the shark diving industry, where major criticisms based on inference, anecdote and opinion stem from concerns of potential behaviourally mediated ecosystem effects because of ecotourism provisioning (aka ‘chumming’ or feeding). 2. There is a general lack of empirical evidence to refute or support associated claims. The few studies that have investigated the behavioural impacts of shark provisioning ecotourism have generated conflicting conclusions, where the confidence in such results may suffer from a narrow spatial and temporal focus given the highly mobile nature of these predators. There is need for studies that examine the potential behavioural consequences of provisioning over ecologically relevant spatial and temporal scales. 3. To advance this debate, we conducted the first satellite telemetry study and movement analysis to explicitly examine the long-range migrations and habitat utilization of tiger sharks (Galeocerdo cuvier) originating in the Bahamas and Florida, two areas that differ significantly with regards to the presence ⁄ absence of provisioning ecotourism. 4. Satellite telemetry data rejected the behaviourally mediated effects of provisioning ecotourism at large spatial and temporal scales. In contrast, to the restricted activity space and movement that were hypothesized, geolocation data evidenced previously unknown long-distance migrations and habitat use for both tiger shark populations closely associated with areas of high biological productivity in the Gulf Stream and subtropical western Atlantic Ocean. We speculate that these areas are likely critically important for G. cuvier feeding forays and parturition. 5. We concluded that, in the light of potential conservation and public awareness benefits of ecotourism provisioning, this practice should not be dismissed out of hand by managers. Given the pressing need for improved understanding of the functional ecology of apex predators relative to human disturbance, empirical studies of different species sensitivities to disturbance should be used to guide best-practice ecotourism policies that maximize conservation goals.
151 citations
Cites background from "The role of learning in shark behav..."
...As sharks exhibit associative learning behaviours similar to those of land mammals (Guttridge et al. 2009), provisioning has generated significant concern as to the potential for negative influences on wild behaviours and natural ecology of free-ranging sharks....
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Book•
15 Jun 2015
TL;DR: David Hallock Secor's Migration Ecology of Fishes finally penetrates the clandestine nature of marine fish migration and employs explanatory frameworks from avian and systems ecology while arguing that migrations are emergent phenomena, structured through schooling, phenotypic plasticity, and other collective agencies.
Abstract: Not since F. R. Harden Jones published his masterwork on fish migration in 1968 has a book so thoroughly demystified the subject. With stunning clarity, David Hallock Secor's Migration Ecology of Fishes finally penetrates the clandestine nature of marine fish migration. Secor explains how the four decades of research since Jones' classic have employed digital-age technologies-including electronic miniaturization, computing, microchemistry, ocean observing systems, and telecommunications-that render overt the previously hidden migration behaviors of fish. Emerging from the millions of observed, telemetered, simulated, and chemically traced movement paths is an appreciation of the individual fish. Members of the same populations may stay put, explore, delay, accelerate, evacuate, and change course as they conditionally respond to their marine existence. But rather than a morass of individual behaviors, Secor shows us that populations are collectively organized through partial migration, which causes groups of individuals to embark on very different migration pathways despite being members of the same population. Case studies throughout the book emphasize how migration ecology confounds current fisheries management. Yet, as Secor explains, conservation frameworks that explicitly consider the influence of migration on yield, stability, and resilience outcomes have the potential to transform fisheries management. A synthetic treatment of all marine fish taxa (teleosts and elasmobranchs), this book employs explanatory frameworks from avian and systems ecology while arguing that migrations are emergent phenomena, structured through schooling, phenotypic plasticity, and other collective agencies. The book provides overviews of the following concepts: the comparative movement ecology of fishes and birds; the alignment of mating systems with larval dispersal; schooling and migration as adaptations to marine food webs; Natal homing; connectivity in populations and metapopulations; and, the contribution of migration ecology to population resilience.
133 citations
TL;DR: It is proposed that the study of shark aggregations may benefit from a more fine-scale analytical approach offered by detailed exploration of social interactions using social network analysis and better understanding of the frequency and longevity of social relations will likely serve for a more informed approach to coastal and pelagic elasmobranch conservation initiatives.
Abstract: There are widespread records of grouping behaviour in both adult and juvenile sharks and rays (Class Chondrichthyes, Subclass Elasmobranchii). Yet despite burgeoning descriptions of these events, many of the proximate and ultimate causes of group living in these top predators remain elusive. Given the documented negative anthropogenic effects on many shark populations globally, there is an increasing need to understand how behaviourally mediated grouping influences population distributions and abundance, and the role this plays in exacerbating vulnerability to fishing mortality. Here, we analyse group living in elasmobranchs: we describe our current understanding of the patterns, mechanisms and functions of both aggregation (where grouping is not driven by social mechanisms) and social grouping (where grouping is influenced by social interaction) and discuss some of the current methods used to study social behaviour in this taxa. In particular, social preferences in elasmobranchs have received relatively little attention. We propose that the study of shark aggregations may benefit from a more fine-scale analytical approach offered by detailed exploration of social interactions using social network analysis. Better understanding of the frequency and longevity of social relations, in conjunction with current long-term data on habitat use and site philopatry, will likely serve for a more informed approach to coastal and pelagic elasmobranch conservation initiatives.
127 citations
Cites background or methods or result from "The role of learning in shark behav..."
...It has been discussed that sharks are capable of active partner choice (Guttridge et al. 2009a, 2011) implying some form of recognition or phenotype matching mechanism....
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...This extended opportunity for juvenile lemon sharks to interact has clearly influenced the behavioural strategy of this species with large aggregations observed in both juvenile and adult phases of this species (Gruber et al. 1988; Wetherbee et al. 2007; Guttridge et al. 2009a)....
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...Across these different life-history strategies, group living behaviour appears relatively common in both the juvenile (Rowat et al. 2007; Guttridge et al. 2009a) and adult phases (Economakis and Lobel 1998; Hight and Lowe 2007)....
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...…burgeoning popularity of studying animal social networks (Croft et al. 2008) accompanied by developments in computational and analytical power has resulted in more hypothesis-led studies of shark social behaviour under semi-wild or captive conditions (Guttridge et al. 2009a; Jacoby et al. 2010)....
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...Guttridge et al. (2009a) used similar binary choice experiments to demonstrate that juvenile lemon sharks (N. brevirostris) show significant associative preferences for both conspecific over heterospecific (nurse sharks, Ginglymostoma cirratum, Ginglymostomatidae) groups and size-matched over…...
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TL;DR: It is concluded that under the right conditions and if done in a precautionary, responsible manner, shark diving can provide a net conservation benefit for a handful of species.
126 citations
References
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TL;DR: In this paper, three types of groups are described, including the impact they have on the development of the membe... and some lessons learned from a lifetime of working with and thinking about groups.
Abstract: The author shares some lessons learned from a lifetime of working with and thinking about groups. Three types of groups are described, including the impact they have on the development of the membe...
2,558 citations
Book•
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01 Jan 2002
TL;DR: In this paper, the benefits of group formation and the costs of grouping are discussed, as well as the spatial heterogeneity of costs and benefits within groups and the homogeneity and homogeneity of group membership.
Abstract: 1. Introduction 2. The benefits of group formation 3. Some costs of grouping 4. The size of a group 5. Spatial heterogeneity of costs and benefits within groups 6. Heterogeneity and homogeneity of group membership 7. Evolutionary considerations 8. Environmental effects on grouping behaviour 9. Mechanisms 10. Conclusions
2,267 citations
Book•
01 Jan 1981
TL;DR: This chapter discusses natural selection, Ecology and Behaviour Testing Hypotheses in Behavioural Ecology, and the design of Signals in Ecology and Evolution.
Abstract: Introduction Natural Selection, Ecology And Behaviour Testing Hypotheses In Behavioural Ecology Economic Decisions And The Individual Predator Versus Prey: Evolutionary Arms Races Competing For Resources Living In Groups Fighting And Assessment Sexual Conflict And Sexual Selection Parental Care And Mating Systems Alternative Breeding Strategies On Selfishness And Altruism Co-Operation And Helping In Birds, Mammals, And Fish Co-Operation And Altruism In The Social Insects The Design Of Signals: Ecology And Evolution Conclusion
1,936 citations
TL;DR: Benefits to alarm signal receivers extend beyond the immediate behavioural response of nearby conspecifics over a few minutes, and are important in mediating the learning of unknown predation cues.
Abstract: The importance of chemical cues in predator-prey interactions has recently received increasing attention from ecologists. The sources of chemicals to which prey species respond often originate as cues released by the predator (reviewed by Kats and Dill, this issue). Alternatively, cues may be released by other prey animals when they detect or are attacked by a predator. Such cues, known as chemical alarm signals, are particularly common in aquatic systems. These signals provide the basis of our current review. Short-term behavioural responses of prey animals to alarm signals have received the most attention. Behavioural responses of prey resemble those exhibited to known predators, and are therefore likely to make receivers less vulnerable to predation. More recently, studies have shown that benefits to alarm signal receivers extend beyond the immediate behavioural response of nearby conspecifics over a few minutes. For example, alarm signals are important in mediating the learning of unknown pred...
1,061 citations
Additional excerpts
...2001), detecting predators through chemical and olfactory clues (Chivers and Smith 1998) as well as performing evasive manoeuvres (Huntingford et al....
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Book•
01 Jan 1996
TL;DR: Social Learning: B.G. Galef, Jr., Social Enhancement of Food Preferences in Norway Rats: A Brief Review, and C.M. Heyes, Genuine Imitation?
Abstract: Social Learning: B.G. Galef, Jr., Introduction. J. Terkel, Cultural Transmission of Feeding Behavior in the Black Rat (Rattus rattus). B.G. Galef, Jr., Social Enhancement of Food Preferences in Norway Rats: A Brief Review. D.M. Fragaszy and E. Visalberghi, Social Learning in Monkeys: Primate 'Primacy' Reconsidered. L.A. Dugatkin, Copying and Mate Choice. L. Lefebvre and L.-A. Giraldeau, Is Social Learning and Adaptive Specialization? K.N. Laland, P.J. Richeron, and R. Boyd, Developing a Theory of Animal Social Learning. M.E. West, Social Learning: Synergy and Songbirds. R.R. Provine, Contagious Yawning and Laughing: Significance for Sensory Feature Detection, Motor Pattern Generation, Imitation and the Evolution of Social Behavior. Imitation: C.M. Heyes, Introduction: Identifying and Defining Imitation. T.R. Zentall, An Analysis of Imitative Learning in Animals. B.R. Moore, The Evolution of Imitative Learning. M.A. Huffman, Acquisition of Innovative Cultural Behaviors in Nonhuman Primates: A Case Study of Stone Handling, a Socially Transmitted Behavior in Japanese Macaques. A. Whiten and D. Custance, Studies of Imitation in Chimpanzees and Children. M. Tomasello, Do Apes Ape? A. Meltzoff, The Human Infant as Imitative Generalist: A 20-Year Progressive Report. C.M. Heyes, Genuine Imitation? Chapter References. Author Index. Subject Index.
928 citations