The selection of process parameters in additive manufacturing for aerospace alloys
26 Mar 2017-The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (Springer London)-Vol. 92, Iss: 5, pp 2081-2098
TL;DR: In this paper, a group of cubes were fabricated using different process parameters from Invar 36 powder using a selective laser melting machine, and the density, microstructures, and surface features of these cubes were measured.
Abstract: Invar 36 has gained considerable popularity in many industries, including the aerospace industry, because of its low coefficient of thermal expansion. In this paper, a brief overview for the research needs in metal additive manufacturing is presented. A thorough study for the influence of process parameters on the quality of the parts produced is presented. This study is beneficial for the long-term growth of the additive manufacturing industry. The paper aims to select the process parameters that can be used to fabricate dense parts from Invar 36 (UNS K93600) using the selective laser melting process. In this research, a group of cubes was fabricated using different process parameters from Invar 36 powder using a selective laser melting machine. The density, microstructures, and surface features of these cubes were measured. Experimental observations were drawn from the results of the preliminary analyses. The influence of the process parameters on the density of the parts produced is discussed in this paper.
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TL;DR: A comprehensive review of metal additive manufacturing in the aerospace industry can be found in this paper, where the primary application scenarios and the associated commercial and technical benefits of additive manufacturing for these applications are summarized.
494 citations
01 Jan 2019
TL;DR: Additive manufacturing (AM) is transforming all segments of the aerospace industry, including commercial and military aircraft, space applications, as well as missiles systems as mentioned in this paper, due to the unique ability of AM to produce parts with complex designs, reduce manufacturing costs (material waste, assembly due to part consolidation, and the need for tools and fixtures), and fabricate parts with premium materials with small production runs.
Abstract: Additive manufacturing (AM) is transforming all segments of the aerospace industry, including commercial and military aircraft, space applications, as well as missiles systems. Such transformation is due to the unique ability of AM to produce parts with complex designs, reduce manufacturing costs (material waste, assembly due to part consolidation, and the need for tools and fixtures), and fabricate parts with premium materials with small production runs and short turnaround times. AM allows the realization of advanced part designs that provide additional space, multifunctional parts, multimaterial parts, part consolidation, and parts that are difficult to machine. The capability of AM to fabricate freeform designs makes it very suitable for the aerospace industry. To date, aerospace companies, such as Boeing, have installed tens of thousands AM parts (including 200 unique nonmetallic part references) on 16 commercial and military aircraft. It has also started the production of titanium AM parts that will allow savings of up to three million USD per aircraft in the near future. GE Aviation is using metal AM to manufacture thousands of fuel nozzles annually for its new LEAP engine. Similarly, Airbus is utilizing metal AM brackets and bleed pipes on its aircraft. It is currently collaborating with Arconic on the production of large-scale AM airframe components and expects to produce 30 t of AM metal parts by December 2018. The main applications of AM in the aerospace industry are rapid prototyping, rapid tooling, and repair, as well as direct digital manufacturing (DDM) of parts made of metal, plastic, ceramic, and composite materials. Currently, the fastest growing application is DDM (final part manufacturing). For metal parts, the main AM technologies in aerospace applications are directed energy deposition and powder bed fusion. For nonmetallic parts, the dominant AM technologies are vat photopolymerization, material jetting, and material extrusion. This chapter reviews the applications, benefits, and opportunities of AM for the aerospace industry, describes the relevant AM technologies, and discusses the current challenges and potential applications.
251 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the process-structure-property relationship for selective laser melting of Invar 36 and stainless steel 316L is discussed, and an optimum process window has been suggested based on experimental work.
135 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the influence of aging temperature and aging time on the microstructure, mechanical property (hardness, strength and ductility) and tribological property of SLM maraging 18Ni-300 steel was studied.
Abstract: Selective laser melting (SLM) is an additive manufacturing and 3D printing technology which offers flexibility in geometric design and rapid production of complex structures. Maraging steels have high strength and good ductility, and therefore have been widely used in aerospace and tooling sectors for many years. This work aims to study the influence of aging temperature and aging time on the microstructure, mechanical property (hardness, strength and ductility) and tribological property of SLM maraging 18Ni-300 steel. The results reveal that the aging conditions had a significant impact on the strength and wear-resistance of the SLM maraging steel. The optimal aging conditions for the SLM maraging steel produced in this work were 490 °C for 3 h under which strength and wear-resistance were maximised. Lower or higher aging temperature led to under-aging or over-aging phenomena, reducing the strength and wear-resistance performance. Shorter or longer aging time also resulted in the decrease of strength and wear-resistance performance of the SLM maraging steel as compared with the optimal conditions. The variation of the mechanical and tribological properties is primarily due to changes in phase compositions and microstructures of the SLM maraging steels.
128 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the use of a neuro-fuzzy-based machine learning method for predicting the high cycle fatigue life of laser powder bed fusion stainless steel 316L was examined.
112 citations
Cites background from "The selection of process parameters..."
...The laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF) process, for example, is associated with a large number of adjustable parameters such as the laser power, scan speed, layer thickness and hatch strategies [5-7]....
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TL;DR: The state-of-the-art of additive manufacturing (AM) can be classified into three categories: direct digital manufacturing, free-form fabrication, or 3D printing as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: This paper reviews the state-of-the-art of an important, rapidly emerging, manufacturing technology that is alternatively called additive manufacturing (AM), direct digital manufacturing, free form fabrication, or 3D printing, etc. A broad contextual overview of metallic AM is provided. AM has the potential to revolutionize the global parts manufacturing and logistics landscape. It enables distributed manufacturing and the productions of parts-on-demand while offering the potential to reduce cost, energy consumption, and carbon footprint. This paper explores the material science, processes, and business consideration associated with achieving these performance gains. It is concluded that a paradigm shift is required in order to fully exploit AM potential.
4,055 citations
TL;DR: Additive manufacturing implies layer by layer shaping and consolidation of powder feedstock to arbitrary configurations, normally using a computer controlled laser as discussed by the authors, which is based on a novel materials incremental manufacturing philosophy.
Abstract: Unlike conventional materials removal methods, additive manufacturing (AM) is based on a novel materials incremental manufacturing philosophy. Additive manufacturing implies layer by layer shaping and consolidation of powder feedstock to arbitrary configurations, normally using a computer controlled laser. The current development focus of AM is to produce complex shaped functional metallic components, including metals, alloys and metal matrix composites (MMCs), to meet demanding requirements from aerospace, defence, automotive and biomedical industries. Laser sintering (LS), laser melting (LM) and laser metal deposition (LMD) are presently regarded as the three most versatile AM processes. Laser based AM processes generally have a complex non-equilibrium physical and chemical metallurgical nature, which is material and process dependent. The influence of material characteristics and processing conditions on metallurgical mechanisms and resultant microstructural and mechanical properties of AM proc...
2,402 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the development of the microstructure of the Ti-6Al-4V alloy processed by selective laser melting (SLM) was studied by light optical microscopy.
2,201 citations
TL;DR: Additive manufacturing processes take the information from a computer-aided design (CAD) file that is later converted to a stereolithography (STL) file as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: Additive manufacturing processes take the information from a computer-aided design (CAD) file that is later converted to a stereolithography (STL) file. In this process, the drawing made in the CAD software is approximated by triangles and sliced containing the information of each layer that is going to be printed. There is a discussion of the relevant additive manufacturing processes and their applications. The aerospace industry employs them because of the possibility of manufacturing lighter structures to reduce weight. Additive manufacturing is transforming the practice of medicine and making work easier for architects. In 2004, the Society of Manufacturing Engineers did a classification of the various technologies and there are at least four additional significant technologies in 2012. Studies are reviewed which were about the strength of products made in additive manufacturing processes. However, there is still a lot of work and research to be accomplished before additive manufacturing technologies become standard in the manufacturing industry because not every commonly used manufacturing material can be handled. The accuracy needs improvement to eliminate the necessity of a finishing process. The continuous and increasing growth experienced since the early days and the successful results up to the present time allow for optimism that additive manufacturing has a significant place in the future of manufacturing.
1,777 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the effect of several heat treatments on the microstructure and mechanical properties of Ti6Al4V processed by Selective Laser Melting (SLM) is studied.
1,320 citations