The space radiation environment for electronics
01 Nov 1988-Vol. 76, Iss: 11, pp 1423-1442
TL;DR: In this article, the Earth's space radiation environment is described in terms of charged particles as relevant to effects on spacecraft electronics, and the nature and magnitude of the trapped and transiting environments are described by spatial distribution and temporal variation.
Abstract: The Earth's space radiation environment is described in terms of charged particles as relevant to effects on spacecraft electronics. The nature and magnitude of the trapped and transiting environments are described in terms of spatial distribution and temporal variation. The internal radiation environment of the spacecraft is described in terms of shielding the high-energy particles of the free-field environment. Exposure levels are presented in terms of ionizing radiation dose and particle fluence for comparison to electronic component susceptibility. >
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TL;DR: The Orbiting Carbon Observatory-2 (OCO-2) carries and points a three-channel imaging grating spectrometer designed to collect high-resolution, co-boresighted spectra of reflected sunlight within the molecular oxygen (O2) A-band at 0.765 microns and the carbon dioxide (CO2) bands at 1.61 and 2.06 microns.
Abstract: . The Orbiting Carbon Observatory-2 (OCO-2) carries and points a three-channel imaging grating spectrometer designed to collect high-resolution, co-boresighted spectra of reflected sunlight within the molecular oxygen (O2) A-band at 0.765 microns and the carbon dioxide (CO2) bands at 1.61 and 2.06 microns. These measurements are calibrated and then combined into soundings that are analyzed to retrieve spatially resolved estimates of the column-averaged CO2 dry-air mole fraction, XCO2. Variations of XCO2 in space and time are then analyzed in the context of the atmospheric transport to quantify surface sources and sinks of CO2. This is a particularly challenging remote-sensing observation because all but the largest emission sources and natural absorbers produce only small ( To meet its demanding measurement requirements, each OCO-2 spectrometer channel collects 24 spectra s−1 across a narrow ( 17 000), dynamic range (∼ 104), and sensitivity (continuum signal-to-noise ratio > 400). The OCO-2 instrument performance was extensively characterized and calibrated prior to launch. In general, the instrument has performed as expected during its first 18 months in orbit. However, ongoing calibration and science analysis activities have revealed a number of subtle radiometric and spectroscopic challenges that affect the yield and quality of the OCO-2 data products. These issues include increased numbers of bad pixels, transient artifacts introduced by cosmic rays, radiance discontinuities for spatially non-uniform scenes, a misunderstanding of the instrument polarization orientation, and time-dependent changes in the throughput of the oxygen A-band channel. Here, we describe the OCO-2 instrument, its data products, and its on-orbit performance. We then summarize calibration challenges encountered during its first 18 months in orbit and the methods used to mitigate their impact on the calibrated radiance spectra distributed to the science community.
265 citations
Cites background from "The space radiation environment for..."
...Primary and secondary cosmic rays with a broad range of energies are occasionally seen everywhere along the orbit path, but they are most common in the vicinity of the South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA), where the base of the inner Van Allen radiation belt extends to altitudes below the 705 km orbit altitude of OCO-2 (Stassinopoulos and Raymond, 1988)....
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...…of energies are occasionally seen everywhere along the orbit path, but they are most common in the vicinity of the South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA), where the base of the inner Van Allen radiation belt extends to altitudes below the 705 km orbit altitude of OCO-2 (Stassinopoulos and Raymond, 1988)....
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TL;DR: In this paper, basic mechanisms and ground-test data for radiation effects in solid-state imagers are reviewed, with a special emphasis on proton-induced effects on silicon charge-coupled devices (CCDs).
Abstract: Basic mechanisms and ground-test data for radiation effects in solid-state imagers are reviewed, with a special emphasis on proton-induced effects on silicon charge-coupled devices (CCDs). For the proton fluxes encountered in the space environment, both transient ionization and displacement damage effects arise from single-particle interactions. In the former case, individual proton tracks will be seen; in the latter, dark-current spikes (or hot pixels) and trapping states that cause degradation in charge-transfer efficiency will be observed. Proton-induced displacement damage effects on dark current and charge transfer are considered in detail, and the practical implications for shielding, device hardening, and ground testing are discussed.
189 citations
TL;DR: The purpose of this document is to describe why the test protocols the authors use are constructed the way they are, to answer the question: “Why do they test it that way”?
Abstract: This document describes the radiation environments, physical mechanisms, and test philosophies that underpin radiation hardness assurance test methodologies. The natural space radiation environment is presented, including the contributions of both trapped and transient particles. The effects of shielding on radiation environments are briefly discussed. Laboratory radiation sources used to simulate radiation environments are covered, including how to choose appropriate sources to mimic environments of interest. The fundamental interactions of radiation with materials via direct and indirect ionization are summarized. Some general test considerations are covered, followed by in-depth discussions of physical mechanisms and issues for total dose and single-event effects testing. The purpose of this document is to describe why the test protocols we use are constructed the way they are. In other words, to answer the question: “Why do we test it that way”?
161 citations
Cites background from "The space radiation environment for..."
...However, trapped protons in Earth’s radiation belts can have energies as high as 400 MeV [111] and galactic protons can have energies as high as 1 GeV....
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TL;DR: AlN MSM PDs hold high potential in next-generation deep ultraviolet PDs for use in harsh environments and are demonstrated by employing AlN thin films on Si(100) substrates with excellent temperature tolerance and radiation hardness.
Abstract: We demonstrate solar-blind photodetectors (PDs) by employing AlN thin films on Si(100) substrates with excellent temperature tolerance and radiation hardness. Even at a bias higher than 200 V the AlN PDs on Si show a dark current as low as ~ 1 nA. The working temperature is up to 300°C and the radiation tolerance is up to 1013 cm−2 of 2-MeV proton fluences for AlN metal-semiconductor-metal (MSM) PDs. Moreover, the AlN PDs show a photoresponse time as fast as ~ 110 ms (the rise time) and ~ 80 ms (the fall time) at 5 V bias. The results demonstrate that AlN MSM PDs hold high potential in next-generation deep ultraviolet PDs for use in harsh environments.
116 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the effects of heavy ion energy and nuclear interactions on the single-event upset (SEU) and single event latchup (SEL) response of commercial and radiation-hardened ICs are explored.
Abstract: The effects of heavy ion energy and nuclear interactions on the single-event upset (SEU) and single-event latchup (SEL) response of commercial and radiation-hardened CMOS ICs are explored. Above the threshold LET for direct ionization-induced upsets, little difference is observed in single-event upset and latchup cross sections measured using low versus high energy heavy ions. However, significant differences between low- and high-energy heavy ion test results are observed below the threshold LET for single-node direct ionization-induced upsets. The data suggest that secondary particles produced by nuclear interactions play a role in determining the SEU and SEL hardness of integrated circuits, especially at low LET. The role of nuclear interactions and implications for radiation hardness assurance and rate prediction are discussed.
111 citations
Cites background from "The space radiation environment for..."
...With the advent of multi-micron thick device overlayers and flip-chip packaging, the usage of facilities in the 10–100 MeV/u range has increased dramatically....
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...909844 environment reach into hundreds of GeV/u, with a peak flux at a few hundred MeV/u [1]....
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...3 is a data point taken with a very low energy (1 MeV/u) carbon beam at BNL....
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...Throughout this paper, the term “low-energy” will be used to refer to BNL ions with energy less than 10 MeV/u, while TAMU ions with energy greater than 10 MeV/u will be referred to as “high-energy”....
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...This is consistent with computations in [11] that suggest that 1-MeV/u carbon ions are below the threshold energy (i.e., the Coulomb barrier) required to produce the interactions responsible for the upsets that are observed with higher energy ions....
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References
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3,054 citations
TL;DR: In this article, it is shown that a parameter L = f(B,I) can be defined which retains most of the desirable properties of I and has the additional property of organizing measurements along lines of force.
Abstract: Dipole representations of the earth's magnetic field have been found to have insufficient accuracy for the study of magnetically trapped particles. A coordinate system consisting of the magnitude of the magnetic field B, and the integral invariant I has been found to adequately organize, measurements made at different geographic locations. It is shown in the present paper, that a parameter L = f(B,I) can be defined which retains most of the desirable properties of I and which has the additional property of organizing measurements along lines of force. Since the parameter L is the analog of a physical distance in a dipole field (the equatorial radius of a magnetic shell), it is usually found to present fewer conceptual difficulties than the integral invariant I.
946 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the probability that any given solar proton fluence level will be exceeded during a space mission is computed for mission to be flown during the active phase of the next solar cycle (1977-1983).
Abstract: The probability with which any given solar proton fluence level will be exceeded during a space mission is computed for mission to be flown during the active phase of the next solar cycle (1977-1983). This probability is a function of fluence level, proton energy threshold, and mission duration. Calculations are based on 1966-1972 data only. In estimating mission fluences, a distinction is made between ordinary and anomalously large events. Probable numbers of each type of event are estimated from Burrell's extension of Poisson statistics. Fluences of all anomalously large events are assumed to have a spectrum given by the August 1972 event, while fluences of the ordinary events are assumed to obey a log normal distribution.
253 citations
25 Aug 1981
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors describe the natural particle environment in which modern space-borne electronics must operate, and provide a simple but accurate empirical model of that environment, based on which a single intensely ionizing particle can alter the information stored in a modern semiconductor memory and possibly do permanent damage to the microelectronic circuit involved
Abstract: : It has recently been recognized that a single intensely ionizing particle can alter the information stored in a modern semiconductor memory and possibly do permanent damage to the microelectronic circuit involved Such particles are common in nature and abundant in space This report describes the natural particle environment in which modern space-borne electronics must operate, and provides a simple but accurate empirical model of that environment
173 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the results of the first single event burnout tests performed on n-channel enhancement mode power MOSFETs are presented, the test method, test results, a description of an observed latched current and a possible failure mechanism.
Abstract: Experiments have been conducted to determine the burnout susceptibility of power MOSFET devices exposed to heavy ions from a Californium-252 source. This report documents the results of the first single event burnout tests performed on n-channel enhancement mode power MOSFETs. Presented are, the test method, test results, a description of an observed latched current and a discussion of a possible failure mechanism. The test results include the observed dependence upon applied drain to source bias and variation in burnout susceptibility for various manufacturers of power MOSFETs.
144 citations