The Water-Energy Nexus of Hydraulic Fracturing: A Global Hydrologic Analysis for Shale Oil and Gas Extraction
Citations
392 citations
268 citations
Cites methods from "The Water-Energy Nexus of Hydraulic..."
...Monthly GWS was expressed as the ratio between irrigation blue water requirements (BWRs) (or green water deficits) and CWR. Crops face GWS when rain-fed conditions cannot meet the CWR....
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...This model has been extensively used to assess spatially explicit CWR (4, 10, 49)....
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...The model calculates a crop-specific CWR (millimeters per year) using a daily soil water balance during each crop’s growing season (4, 10, 49)....
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...Agricultural EWS tends to concentrate in low-income countries with large yield gaps, likely due to the lack of capacity to invest in the irrigation infrastructure needed to meet CWR using the available renewable blue water resources....
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...CWR can be satisfied by precipitation (i.e., green water) and supplemented through blue water (or irrigation) (blue water requirement, BWR, or irrigation water requirement) if precipitation is insufficient to meet the entire CWR....
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130 citations
Cites background from "The Water-Energy Nexus of Hydraulic..."
...As a consequence of increasing human pressure, in some regions, water use is exceeding sustainable levels (Rosa et al 2018a)....
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...…Water savings through trade 220 2007 (Dalin et al 2012a) 352 1997–2001 (Chapagain et al 2006) Food aid 10 2005 (Jackson et al 2015) Water grabbing (appropriation through land investments) 380 2013 (Rulli andD’Odorico 2013) Scanlon 2012, Rosa et al 2017, Rosa et al 2018b, Rosa andD’Odorico 2019)....
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...…may be particularly high for water resources stored in reservoirs, rivers, and lakes, as this water can be used for irrigation but also for hydropower generation, drinking water, energy extraction and production, mining, and other industrial purposes (Rosa et al 2018a, 2018b, D’Odorico et al 2018)....
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...Thus, water footprint and VWT analyses need to be integrated with a water balance approach to compare the consumption rates with locally available water resources (Lenzen et al 2013; Mekonnen and Hoekstra 2016; Soligno et al 2017; Rosa et al 2018a)....
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...Some global studies have tried to separate blue and greenwater used in agriculture (Rost et al 2008, Aldaya et al 2010, Siebert and Döll 2010, Rosa et al 2018a)....
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121 citations
Cites background or methods from "The Water-Energy Nexus of Hydraulic..."
...Following Rosa et al (2018) we calculated the renewable blue water availability (BWA) using estimates of renewable blue water flow (Fekete et al 2002) and a flow accumulation algorithm (see section 2.3)....
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...Detailed country-specific values for irrigationwater consumption and calorie and protein production values are shown in supplementary tables S4–S6. as the industrial and energy sectors (Rosa et al 2017, Chiarelli et al 2018, D’Odorico et al 2018, Rosa et al 2018)....
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...Future research is also required to analyze in which areas additional irrigation water can exacerbate water stress and intensify a competition for water between food and energy production (Scanlon et al 2017, Rosa et al 2018)....
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...Three flow regimes were considered: low, intermediate, and high corresponding to less than 25th percentile, between 25th and 75th percentile, and greater than 75th percentile of annual runoff, respectively (Rosa et al 2018)....
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101 citations
Cites background or methods from "The Water-Energy Nexus of Hydraulic..."
...…(Konar et al 2011, Hoekstra and Mekonnen 2012), and the regions of unsustainable irrigation have been extensively investigated andmapped (Rosa et al 2018a), the globalized dimension of unsustainable irrigation, the loss of environmental flows, and the associated unsustainable virtual…...
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...Country specific values of the sustainability and unsustainability of irrigation expansion were taken from Rosa et al (2018a)....
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...In these conditions, irrigation uses water that should be allocated to environmental flows and therefore contributes to environmental degradation and groundwater depletion (Rosa et al 2018a)....
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...This study improves our previous assessment of unsustainable irrigation water consumption (Rosa et al 2018a), where we found that in year 2000 about 40% (336 km3) of global irrigation was unsustainable, based on 16 major crops that account for 70% of global crop production....
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...Renewable blue water availability accounts for surface- and ground-water volumes that are replenished through the annual hydrological cycle (Rosa et al 2018a, 2018b)....
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References
7,169 citations
"The Water-Energy Nexus of Hydraulic..." refers background or methods in this paper
...Following Steffen et al. (2015), a different environmental flow requirement (i.e., value of y) was used for each flow regime (see supporting information Table S2; Pastor et al., 2014)....
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...We assumed that a fraction (y) of runoff is allocated to maintain environmental flows and the remaining fraction (1 y) is considered blue water locally available for human needs, WAloc (Pastor et al., 2014; Steffen et al., 2015)....
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2,944 citations
"The Water-Energy Nexus of Hydraulic..." refers background or methods in this paper
...We adopt a water balance approach (Mekonnen & Hoekstra, 2016) to quantify the impact of shale extraction on the local water resources while accounting for the water required for other human needs (e.g., irrigation) and environmental flows....
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...We analyze the average annual water stress (Mekonnen & Hoekstra, 2016) at 0.5° resolution (~50 km at the equator) for the world’s shale deposits and highlight those deposits in which shale hydrocarbon extraction would induce or enhance water stress....
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...Renewable blue water availability was calculated following the methods by Mekonnen and Hoekstra (2016)....
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...The global distribution of annual renewable blue water availability (WA) (at 0.5° resolution) was calculated following the methods by Mekonnen and Hoekstra (2016), whereby the value of WA in a grid cell was expressed as the sum of the local renewable blue water availability in that cell (WAloc) and…...
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...Water stress (WS) is defined as the ratio of the local water consumption of human activities (WC) (i.e., municipal, agriculture, mining, and other industries) and the renewable blue water availability in a grid cell (Mekonnen & Hoekstra, 2016)....
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2,198 citations
"The Water-Energy Nexus of Hydraulic..." refers background in this paper
...High Plains and Indo-Gangetic Plain aquifers) because of groundwater pumping for irrigation (Rodell et al., 2009; Scanlon et al., 2012)....
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...…in the south central United States, northern India, and Pakistan are situated in groundwater basins that are experiencing substantial depletion (e.g., the U.S. High Plains and Indo-Gangetic Plain aquifers) because of groundwater pumping for irrigation (Rodell et al., 2009; Scanlon et al., 2012)....
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2,099 citations
1,478 citations
"The Water-Energy Nexus of Hydraulic..." refers background or methods in this paper
...Estimates of agricultural (crops and livestock), industrial, and domestic water consumption at 0.0833° resolution were from Hoekstra and Mekonnen (2012) and were aggregated to 0.5° resolution to match with the water availability data set....
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...We estimate that 43 km3/yr of freshwater are consumed for domestic and industrial purposes over shale deposits—which is about 6% of the total global annual water consumption by these sectors (Hoekstra & Mekonnen, 2012; Table 1)....
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...…for shale oil and gas production is an order of magnitude smaller than that required for crop irrigation globally (899 km3 annually; Hoekstra & Mekonnen, 2012), we find that the effect of hydraulic fracturing on water resources could be substantial at the scale of individual shale deposits…...
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...Crop water consumption was estimated using a crop-specific model of irrigation water requirements (Hoekstra &Mekonnen, 2012)....
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...The rates of domestic and industrial water consumption were taken from Hoekstra and Mekonnen (2012) using country-specific per capita values and population density maps....
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